by Jared Cohen
the Bosnian campaign of the 1990s: Siobhan Gorman, Yochi J. Dreazen and August Cole, “Insurgents Hack U.S. Drones,” Wall Street Journal, December 17, 2009, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB126102247889095011.html.
U.S. military troops first discovered laptops: Ibid.
As Peter Singer pointed out, during World War I, when the tank first appeared: Peter Warren Singer in discussion with the authors, April 2012.
targeted Soviet tanks: Abdul Rahim Wardak in discussion with the authors, June 2012.
“The ground robots our soldiers use”: Peter Warren Singer in discussion with the authors, April 2012.
Faced with this decision: Ibid.
Responsibility to Protect (RtoP): Jayshree Bajoria, “Libya and the Responsibility to Protect,” Counsel on Foreign Relations, analysis brief, March 24, 2011, http://www.cfr.org/libya/libya-responsibility-protect/p24480.
a brave American soul called Fred: Libyan ministers in discussion with the authors, June 2012.
Bangladesh is among the most frequent contributors of troops: “Ranking of Military and Police Contributions to U.N. Operations,” United Nations Peacekeeping, Resources, August 31, 2012, http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2012/august12_2.pdf.
CHAPTER 7
THE FUTURE OF RECONSTRUCTION
a small GSM … network limited to government officials: “Apple’s iPhone and Afghanistan’s Taliban,” Cellular-News (London), February 13, 2009, http://www.cellular-news.com/story/36027.php.
Saddam Hussein banned mobile phones entirely: W. David Gardner, “For Sale: Iraq’s Cell-Phone Franchises,” InformationWeek, July 27, 2005, http://www.informationweek.com/news/166403218.
combatants in the ensuing conflicts were the only ones: Author discussions with members of the Libyan ministry of communications and informatics, June 2012.
MTC-Vodafone, a regional telecom company: “Post-War Telecommunications Devel-opments in Iraq,” Office of Technology and Electronic Commerce, Research by Country/Region, accessed October 18, 2012, http://web.ita.doc.gov/ITI/itiHome.nsf/6502bd9adeb499b285256cdb00685f77/e781b255ae7a4f9a85256d9c0068abd9?OpenDocument.
MCI, got the nod in Baghdad: Ibid.
towers were put up all over the country: Senior CPA (Coalition Provisional Authority) official in discussion with the authors, January 2011.
the sector was booming: Iraq—Telecoms, Mobile, Broadband and Forecasts: Executive Summary, BuddeComm, accessed October 18, 2012, http://www.budde.com.au/Research/Iraq-Telecoms-Mobile-Broadband-and-Forecasts.html.
U.N. established a mobile network: “Press Briefing by the U.N. Offices for Pakistan and Afghanistan,” United Nations, News Centre, January 16, 2001, http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/afghanistan/infocusnews.asp?NewsID=136&sID=4.
four major operators in Afghanistan: Afghanistan—Telecoms, Mobile, Internet and Forecasts: Executive Summary, BuddeComm, accessed October 18, 2012. http://www.budde.com.au/Research/Afghanistan-Telecoms-Mobile-Internet-and-Forecasts.html. The above source shows that as of 2011 there were 17.6 million total mobile subscribers in Afghanistan with the four major operators “carrying market shares in excess of 20%.” From this we estimate “some 15 million,” which is conservative.
carriers were able to restore functionality: Tim Large, “Cell Phones and Radios Help Save Lives After Haiti Earthquake,” Reuters, January 25, 2010, http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/01/25/us-haiti-telecoms-idUSTRE60O07M20100125.
Digicel and Voilà, reported that they were able to operate: Suzanne Choney, “Firms Scramble to Repair Haiti Wireless Service,” MSNBC, updated January 22, 2010, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/34977823/ns/world_news-haiti/t/firms-scramble-repair-haiti-wireless-service/#.UIBq5MVG-8B.
Get the towers up, get them running: Cameron R. Hume, in discussion with Jared Cohen, January 2010.
Donated cell towers had to be guarded: Suzanne Choney, “Firms Scramble to Repair Haiti Wireless Service,” MSNBC, updated January 22, 2010, http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/34977823/ns/world_news-haiti/t/firms-scramble-repair-haiti-wireless-service/#.UIBq5MVG-8B.
Vodafone’s speedy restoration of service in Egypt: “Statements—Vodafone Egypt,” Vodafone, see January 29, 2011, and February 2, 2011, http://www.vodafone.com/content/index/media/press_statements/statement_on_egypt.html.
“We had people sleeping in the network centers”: Vittorio Colao in discussion with the authors, August 2011.
Roshan, is also the country’s biggest investor and taxpayer: “Western Union and Roshan to Introduce International Mobile Money Transfer Service in Afghanistan,” Roshan, News, February 27, 2012, http://www.roshan.af/Roshan/Media_Relations/News/News_Details/12-02-27/Western_Union_and_Roshan_to_Introduce_International_Mobile_Money_Transfer_service_in_Afghanistan.aspx.
Roshan employs thousands: Ibid.
8 percent stake in The New York Times: Russell Adams, “Carlos Slim Boosts Stake in New York Times Again,” Wall Street Journal, October 6, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052970203388804576615123528159748.html.
“I think that more than feeling just Lebanese, I feel I am part of the world altogether”: Carlos Slim Helú, in discussion with the authors, September 2011.
growth of mobile phones in Somalia: Abdi Sheikh and Ibrahim Mohamed, “Somali Mobile Phone Firms Thrive Despite Chaos,” Reuters, November 3, 2009, Africa edition, http://af.reuters.com/article/investingNews/idAFJOE5A20DB20091103; Abdinasir Mohamed and Sarah Childress, “Telecom Firms Thrive in Somalia Despite War, Shattered Economy,” Wall Street Journal, May 11, 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704608104575220570113266984.html.
functions across all three regions: “Somalia—Telecommunications Overview,” Infoasaid, accessed October 18, 2012, http://infoasaid.org/guide/somalia/telecommunications-overview.
Only one commercial bank exists in Somalia: Mohamed Odowa, “Rebuilding Trust in Somali Commercial Banking,” Somalia Report, May 15, 2012, http://www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/3347/Rebuilding_Trust_in_Somali_Commercial_Banking; Dinfin Mulupi, “Opening a Bank in Somalia? Not a Crazy Idea, Says Businessman,” How We Made It in Africa (Cape Town), June 18, 2012, http://www.howwemadeitinafrica.com/why-we-decided-to-open-a-bank-in-somalia/17530/.
mobile money-transfer services allow: Sahra Abdi, “Mobile Transfers Save Money and Lives in Somalia,” Reuters, March 3, 2010, http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/03/03/us-somalia-mobiles-idUSTRE6222BY20100303.
Bahraini telecom tried to expand: Cynthia Johnston, Reuters, “U.S. Authority Tells Batelco to End Iraq Cellular Service,” Arab News (Jeddah), July 27, 2003, http://www.arabnews.com/node/234902.
Somalia’s mobile penetration is much higher: Author discussions with government officials in Somalia, October 2012. It is worth noting that official statistics for Somalia sometimes show a lower percentage.
Pirates on the Somali coast: Jama Deperani, “Somali Pirate Rules and Regulations,” Somalia Report, October 8, 2011, http://www.somaliareport.com/index.php/post/1706.
In a February 2012 report, the United Nations Security Council: Security Council Committee on Somalia and Eritrea Adds One Individual to List of Individuals and Entities, United Nations Security Council SC/10545, February 17, 2012, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2012/sc10545.doc.htm.
a list of the ten functions of the state: Ashraf Ghani and Clare Lockhart, Fixing Failed States: A Framework for Rebuilding a Fractured World (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 124–166.
three commissions were created: Work Package 7 on Reparations, Report of Workshop II: The Interactions between Mass Claims Processes and Cases in Domestic Courts, Impact of International Courts on Domestic Criminal Procedures in Mass Atrocity Cases (DOMAC) and Amsterdam Center for International Law, June 18, 2010. See section by Peter van der Auweraert, presenter of “Panel Three: Iraq Reparation Schemes,” pages 27–31, http://www.domac.is/media/domac/Workshop-II-report-Final.pdf.
A parallel authority was set up to resolve disputes: Ibid., see Discussion of the Cassation Commission, pages
28 and 30.
But despite their good intentions: Ibid, 29–31.
The Somali diaspora: France Lamy, “Mapping Towards Crisis Relief in the Horn of Africa,” Google Maps, August 12, 2011, http://google-latlong.blogspot.com/2011/08/mapping-towards-crisis-relief-in-horn.html.
The journalist Naomi Klein: Naomi Klein, The Shock Doctrine: The Rise of Disaster Capitalism (New York: Metropolitan Books/Henry Holt, 2007).
hundreds of thousands were killed: “Paul Farmer Examines Haiti ‘After the Earthquake,’ ” NPR, July 12, 2011, http://www.npr.org/2011/07/12/137762573/paul-farmer-examines-haiti-after-the-earthquake.
The Haitian government believes: “Haiti,” New York Times, updated August 26, 2012, http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/haiti/index.html.
while a leaked memo: Emily Troutman, “US Report Queries Haiti Quake Death Toll, Homeless,” Agence France-Presse (AFP), May 27, 2011, http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5jELhQRaWNNs56GOlifagC5F4DSZg?docId=CNG.699dc08a5f873f53071a317e008a7a5b.3a1.
“text to donate” campaign: Lindsey Ellerson, “Obama Administration Texting Program Has Raised $5 Million for Red Cross Haiti Relief,” ABC News, January 14, 2010, http://abcnews.go.com/blogs/politics/2010/01/obama-administration-texting-program-has-raised-5-million-for-red-cross-haiti-relief/.
$43 million in aid: Elizabeth Woyke, “Yes, You Can Still Donate Money to Haiti via Your Cellphone,” Forbes, January 12, 2011, http://www.forbes.com/sites/elizabethwoyke/2011/01/12/yes-you-can-still-donate-money-to-haiti-via-your-cellphone/.
Télécoms Sans Frontières: Adele Waugaman, “Telecoms Sans Frontieres’ Emergency Response,” presentation to the U.S. Department of State, Haiti Earthquake, July 9, 2010, United Nations Foundation and Vodafone Foundation, http://www.unfoundation.org/assets/pdf/haiti-earthquake-tsf-emergency-response-1.pdf; Tom Foremski, “Télécoms Sans Frontières—How a Simple Phone Call Helps in Haiti,” Silicon Valley Watcher, February 4, 2010, http://www.siliconvalleywatcher.com/mt/archives/2010/02/telecoms_sans_f.php.
Thomson Reuters Foundation’s AlertNet: Thomson Reuters, “Thomson Reuters Foundation Launches Free Information Service for Disaster-Struck Population in Haiti: Text Your Location to 4636 to Register,” press release, January 17, 2010, http://thomsonreuters.com/content/press_room/corporate/TR_Foundation_launches_EIS.
delivery of funding from institutional donors: José de Córdoba, “Aid Spawns Back-lash in Haiti,” Wall Street Journal, November 12, 2010, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304023804575566743115456322.html; Ingrid Arnesen, “In Haiti, Hope Is the Last Thing Lost,” Wall Street Journal, January 12, 2011, http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704515904576076031661824012.html.
Hundreds of thousands of Haitians: William Booth, “NGOs in Haiti Face New Questions about Effectiveness,” Washington Post, February 1, 2011, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/02/01/AR2011020102030.html.
People well qualified to say what transpired: See Paul Farmer, Haiti After the Earthquake (New York: PublicAffairs, 2012).
a pattern emerging: See Jessica T. Mathews, “Power Shift,” Foreign Affairs, January/February 1997, http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/52644/jessica-t-mathews/power-shift, about the rise of NGOs.
70 percent overhead in “production costs”: Aly Weisman, “Invisible Children Respond to #StopKony Viral Video Criticisms,” The Wire, Business Insider, March 8, 2012, http://www.businessinsider.com/invisible-children-respond-to-stopkony-viral-video-criticisms-2012-3.
bizarre detention: Sarah Grieco, “Invisible Children Co-founder Detained: SDPD,” NBC 7 San Diego, March 17, 2012, http://www.nbcsandiego.com/news/local/jason-russell-san-diego-invisible-children-kony-2012-142970255.html.
There already are monitoring and rating systems for NGOs: GuideStar, Charity Navigator, GiveWell, CharityWatch, Philanthropedia, GreatNonprofits, and others fall into the former category. Their primary goal is to facilitate better-informed giving. They range from simply aggregating relevant information such as organizations’ Form 990 tax returns (GuideStar), to engaging charities directly to collect information and analyze evidence of impact (GiveWell). While these tools are incredibly valuable, our hunch is that they are only used by foundations and a small minority of individuals who give in considerable amounts. A report called Money for Good confirms this hunch, finding that only 35 percent of individuals do research before giving and that those who do primarily go to the organization itself for information. See Money for Good II: Driving Dollars to the Highest Performing Nonprofits, Summary Report 2011, Hope Consulting, November 2011, 9–10, http://www.guidestar.org/ViewCmsFile.aspx?ContentID=4040.
There are already some umbrella aid organizations like InterAction, but they have a couple of hundred members at best, which is only a fraction of the tens of thousands of NGOs involved in some kind of relief work.
demonstrated this to great effect: Jason Palmer, “Social Networks and the Web Offer a Lifeline in Haiti,” BBC, January 15, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8461240.stm; “How Does Haiti Communicate after the Earthquake?,” BBC, January 20, 2010, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8470270.stm.
Ushahidi volunteers in the United States: James F. Smith, “Tufts Map Steered Action amid Chaos,” Boston Globe, April 5, 2010, http://www.boston.com/news/world/latinamerica/articles/2010/04/05/tufts_project_delivered_aid_to_quake_victims/?page=1; Jessica Ramirez, “ ‘Ushahidi’ Technology Saves Lives in Haiti and Chile,” Newsweek and Daily Beast, March 3, 2010, http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/blogs/techtonic-shifts/2010/03/03/ushahidi-technology-saves-lives-in-haiti-and-chile.html.
“I’m buried”: Ramirez, “ ‘Ushahidi’ Technology Saves Lives in Haiti and Chile,” http://www.thedailybeast.com/newsweek/blogs/techtonic-shifts/2010/03/03/ushahidi-technology-saves-lives-in-haiti-and-chile.html.
Roshan has launched a pilot program: Eltaf Najafizada and James Rupert, “Afghan Police Paid by Phone to Cut Graft in Anti-Taliban War,” Bloomberg, April 13, 2011, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-04-13/afghan-police-now-paid-by-phone-to-cut-graft-in-anti-taliban-war.html.
“Where people have needs”: Paul Kagame in discussion with the authors, September 2011.
(an estimated $1 billion annual business): Aditi Malhotra, “The Illicit Trade of Small Arms,” Geopolitical Monitor (Toronto), Backgrounder, January 19, 2011, http://www.geopoliticalmonitor.com/the-illicit-trade-of-small-arms-4273/.
Mali with disgruntled Tuareg fighters: Michel Moutot, Agence France-Presse (AFP), “West’s Intervention in Libya Tipped Mali into Chaos: Experts,” Google News, April 5, 2012, http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5hJtUvEGQfS0X5Lip5M2Z7MOJIgkw?docId=CNG.90655ad2d0483083880b2914c0ec5599.251.
demilitarization of tens of thousands of former fighters: Reintegration Program: Reflections on the Reintegration of Ex-Combatants, Multi-Country Demobilization and Reintegration Program (MDRP), September–October 2008, http://www.mdrp.org/PDFs/MDRP_DissNote5_0908.pdf.
“We believe that we need to put tools in the hands of ex-combatants”: Paul Kagame in discussion with the authors, September 2011.
more than $380 million in aid: Frederick Womakuyu, “South Sudan: Nation Embarks on Disarming Ex-Combatants,” AllAfrica, July 12, 2011, http://allafrica.com/stories/201107130081.html.
two hundred thousand former soldiers: Ibid.
In Colombia, a largely successful DDR program: Author observations while visiting the DDR program in Colombia on two separate occasions.
“Human-rights and justice groups can build”: Nigel Snoad in discussion with the authors, March 2012.
Dozens of criminals: Report of the International Criminal Court, Sixty-Sixth Session, United Nations General Assembly, August 19, 2011, 6–7, http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/D207D618-D99D-49B6-A1FC-A1A221B43007/283906/ICC2011AnnualReporttoUNEnglish1.pdf.
for many months before their trials: Susana SáCouto, Katherine Cleary et al., “Expediting Proceedings at the International Criminal C
ourt,” American University, Washington College of Law, War Crimes Research Office, International Criminal Court, Legal Analysis and Education Project, June 2011, http://www.wcl.american.edu/warcrimes/icc/documents/1106report.pdf.
the country’s new government: Reconciliation After Violent Conflict: A Hand-book, International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance (International IDEA), 2003. See section by Peter Uvin, “The Gacaca Tribunals in Rwanda,” 116–117, accessed October 19, 2012, http://www.idea.int/publications/reconciliation/upload/reconciliation_full.pdf.
the gacaca tribunal: Ibid.
Conclusion
“Technology”: Ray Kurzweil, The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence (New York: Viking, 1999), 32.
Every two days: M. G. Siegler, “Eric Schmidt: Every 2 Days We Create as Much Information as We Did up to 2003,” TechCrunch, August 4, 2010.
only two billion people: “The World in 2010: ICT Facts and Figures,” ITU News, December 2010, http://www.itu.int/net/itunews/issues/2010/10/04.aspx.
seven billion online: “U.S. & World Population Clocks,” U.S. Cesus Bureau, accessed October 26, 2012, http://www.census.gov/main/www/popclock.html.
INDEX
Aadhaar
Abbottabad, Pakistan, 2.1, 5.1
