by Jane Austen
41. Mr. Elliot would have been studying to become a barrister, the branch of the law considered genteel. For what this study involved, see note 32.
42. town: London.
43. independence: financial independence.
44. For this woman’s history, and its significance as an example of social climbing in this society, see note 45.
45. He sees himself as head of the house, or family, because he is the one Elliot who has a title.
46. Tattersal’s, or Tattersalls in more recent spelling, was the main place in London for buying and selling horses. Horses were a particular concern of gentlemen, who would use them for their carriages, for riding, and for hunting, and who in consequence often owned several. All this made Tattersalls a popular venue for upper-class men. For a picture of Tattersalls, giving a sense of its clientele, see this page.
47. The House of Commons is the lower, though also the more powerful, of the two houses of Parliament. It was dominated then by country gentry like Sir Walter. While he himself does not appear to have a seat, he probably has friends who do, and he would see it as a natural place to meet other men of his class and to introduce his heir to them.
48. Mourning attire was a universal practice among the more affluent classes at this time, with an elaborate etiquette indicating what was worn and for how long. The ribbons worn by Elizabeth represent a bare minimum: full mourning for women included black gowns as well as other articles, and such mourning was often adopted for people no closer than cousins. Since Mrs. Elliot has just died—in a conversation in the following February Anne says she has “not been dead much above half a year” (see chronology, this page; and this page)—the limited mourning adopted here suggests the estrangement of Sir Walter and his children from Mr. Elliot.
49. There was no prohibition against marriage between cousins; see note 9.
50. Their hearing this gossip from friends, whether truly kind or not, suggests the relatively small upper-class society of this time, something indicated at other places in Jane Austen. There were only around six hundred baronetcies in all of England at this time, along with almost three hundred noble families of higher rank.
51. Upper-class women had a great deal of leisure time, even if, like Elizabeth, they had the duties of a mistress of the house. This would be especially true if they had no children. The “habits of utility abroad” (i.e., outside the house) probably refers to charitable activities: assisting and visiting the local poor was considered an important activity for elite ladies, though, as Elizabeth shows, not all did it. Talents and accomplishments included music, drawing, and various decorative activities such as embroidery: these were taught to girls, and young women were encouraged to continue cultivating them. One argument made in favor of such continued cultivation was that these activities—along with reading, another pastime later shown (this page) to be of no interest to Elizabeth—helped fill ladies’ leisure hours in productive ways.
52. His tradespeople would be the merchants he bought from. It was standard commercial practice then to sell items by credit, especially when dealing with wealthy customers, and then send them periodic bills.
53. Mr. Shepherd is a lawyer who manages Sir Walter’s affairs; see note 1.
54. state: dignity, pomp, grandeur.
55. It was commonly believed that those of high status should demonstrate and support that status by external display. This would mean both expensive and impressive possessions—houses, furnishings, clothes, carriages, horses—and a general willingness to spend money freely. Those who did not could lose prestige, while also seeing themselves outdone by others of their rank. Thus Sir Walter has a powerful social reinforcement for his natural extravagance.
56. Many wealthy landowners fell into debt. This had long been the case, and it may have become more common during the half century preceding this novel, despite rising incomes from agriculture. The principal cause was excessive expenditure. Maintaining a large country house, with its attendant army of servants, was itself an enormous expense, and in the eighteenth century many owners—spurred by changes in tastes, desire for greater comfort, or simple competitive emulation—undertook the additional expense, potentially enormous, of improving or even completely rebuilding the house and installing new elaborate landscaping as well. Increasing numbers of wealthy people also added to their expenses by living for substantial parts of the year in London, which had been growing tremendously in size and in the opportunities for enjoyment it offered, and which was increasingly accessible thanks to improvements in the speed and ease of travel. To all these pressures and temptations were added a relaxed attitude to debt among much of the elite and a willingness among many people to lend to those of high status.
57. It is notable that Sir Walter thinks only of informing and consulting Elizabeth.
58. Charity then was a basic function of the upper classes, especially if they were prominent landowners. In a letter Jane Austen writes of the standard Christmas duty of “laying out Edward’s money for the poor”—Edward was a brother of hers who had inherited a wealthy estate. Hence even someone as selfish as Sir Walter has regular charities he contributes to, and even when Elizabeth selects their charities as prime candidates for elimination, a sign of her similar selfishness, she does not propose eliminating them all.
59. London offered a great variety of shops, so it would be natural for those visiting it to buy gifts for those who remained in the country.
60. alienable: capable of being transferred to another’s ownership.
61. Sir Walter’s estate, like most estates of the time, was governed by a system of strict settlement, under which the current owner was only a life tenant, who received the current income from the property but was bound to hand it intact to the next holder, his heir. The central purpose of the system was to preserve family property through the generations, which meant, among other things, keeping profligate or foolish owners like Sir Walter from selling to pay off debts. In many cases, as is true here, a small portion of the estate was granted outright to the current owner to give him some flexibility to deal with unexpected problems; this is what Sir Walter could dispose of or sell if he wished.
62. condescend: lower himself.
63. Mortgaging was a standard way for landowners to raise money, whether for paying debts or for other purposes. Sir Walter has been able to mortgage only the small part of the estate under his control; the strict settlement would block him from mortgaging the rest.
64. Sir Walter’s strong scruples, and fear of disgracing his name, stem from the powerful emphasis in upper-class society on preserving family tradition and family social position through the generations. Sir Walter’s own obsession with his ancestry shows how much he shares this ethos. Someone who failed to pass on his inheritance intact would be regarded as having violated one of the most basic of his duties, to his family and to society as a whole (since an elite landowning class with strong traditions and strong ties to its land was considered an essential source of political and social leadership and stability).
65. market town: town in a rural area that is a center for local trade and shopping. It would be a natural residence for a local lawyer like Mr. Shepherd.
VOLUME I, CHAPTER II
1. Mr. Shepherd has already been identified as Sir Walter’s agent (this page). He is an attorney: attorneys constituted the majority of lawyers at the time; unlike the more prestigious barristers, they could not try cases in court. Attorneys’ business consisted principally of property and financial transactions, and they were usually selected by wealthy landowners to manage their estates and finances (see note 19). Some attorneys gave up their normal practice to full-time agents, though a later reference by Mr. Shepherd to consultation on another matter suggests this is not the case with him.
The description of Mr. Shepherd’s possible “hold or his views on Sir Walter” refers to the dependence someone as incapable as Sir Walter of managing his finances might have on the person who does it for him,
and the low opinion that close dealings have probably given the attorney of his client. But, as explained, and shown over the next couple of chapters, none of this causes Mr. Shepherd to be other than deferential in speaking to Sir Walter.
2. abilities: mental powers.
3. Respect for those of high rank was a basic tenet of this society. In principle it went along with respect for the high moral standards that those of high rank were supposed to embody. In practice, the latter, as the case of Sir Walter shows, did not always fulfill those standards, and this created a tension, seen in Lady Russell’s attitudes, between moral respect and social respect.
4. good-breeding: politeness, courtesy.
5. cultivated: well-educated, cultured. Lady Russell’s strong interest in books, and regard for those who read, will be mentioned at several points.
6. consequence: social status or distinction.
7. This indicates Jane Austen’s own moral standards. While not condemning all concern for social distinction or deference, she always upholds the primacy of moral considerations. She also takes care to delineate the precise moral virtues and failings of each character, whether explicitly, as in this passage, or implicitly, through showing the character in speech and action.
8. A knight was someone distinguished by the king for meritorious action or service of some kind. The knighthood gave him the right to be called “Sir,” and his wife the right to be called “Lady,” for their lifetimes.
9. This means Lady Russell rents her house from Sir Walter. She had earlier been described as having moved to the village of Kellynch to be near Lady Elliot. Landowners often owned much of the property in the local village; Sir Walter may have already owned a house there, or he may have built one to accommodate his wife’s friend. The house in which Jane Austen lived in the last decade of her life, and wrote most of her novels, was one owned by her brother, whose estate near the village included the house, and who offered it, rent-free, to his mother and sisters.
It is notable that Sir Walter is described as an obliging landlord. This may stem from his regard for Lady Russell as a family friend and a person with a title, or it may reflect his general tendency in such matters. With all his faults, he is never shown as rapacious or dishonest in his dealings with others. Jane Austen consistently gives even her worst characters some redeeming features, and even her best some flaws: her firm moral judgments are complemented by an equally firm realism in depicting the complexities of human nature. In her satirical sketch “Plan for a Novel,” she imagines a novel that is the antithesis of what she values; among its features are that “All the Good will be unexceptionable in every respect—and there will be no foibles or weaknesses but with the Wicked, who will be completely depraved & infamous, hardly a resemblance of Humanity left in them.”
10. Retrenchment, particularly by cutting down on one’s expenses, was the frequent response of landowners who fell into debt. Some tried instead to augment their income, whether through marriage to an heiress or lucrative political office or agricultural improvements. Sir Walter, however, is rather old for marriage and has clearly not pursued politics until now. As for improving the productivity and income from his land, that might be insufficient for his needs; moreover, he hardly seems like someone to undertake such a task. Some indebted landowners tried defaulting, or even defrauded their creditors in some manner, but Sir Walter is sufficiently honorable, or desirous of preserving a good name, that this course is never considered.
11. importance: social position, dignity.
12. Grand country houses like Kellynch Hall were built in part to support the status of the owner by displaying his wealth and grandeur; for example, they frequently had more rooms than were really needed by the family to live, even to live luxuriously. Lady Russell’s fear, which turns out to be justified, is that Sir Walter will not accept a reduced style of living because he believes a grand style is too important to the dignity of the house.
13. As discussed earlier (see note 56), many aristocrats fell into debt, including the leading aristocrats, i.e., the “first families.” Lady Russell’s final words, “ought to do,” represents her reluctant admission that not all behaved sensibly and responsibly in response to their misfortunes.
14. Lady Russell’s disapproval of singular conduct, i.e., deviation from established social norms, was standard in this society, though not everyone would have disapproved as strongly as she. For more on this issue, and Jane Austen’s probable attitude, see note 13.
15. This is the first time we see Anne, the main character of the novel, actually doing or deciding on something. It is notable that what she does is to recommend self-denial and the strongest adherence to duty and conscience.
16. The horses are used for the family chaise: see note 34. Horses represented a considerable expense, including the initial cost of purchase (and of subsequent purchases, for they would need to be replaced periodically, especially if subjected to frequent use), numerous pieces of necessary equipment, food, servants to attend to them, and a stable to keep them.
17. Travel was expensive then, especially if done by private carriage, as anyone of their standing would do. The Elliots do not need to rent a carriage, but theirs would suffer costly wear on any lengthy voyage along the often rough roads of the time, and they would still need to hire new horses every ten miles (for how this worked, see note 90), pay frequent tolls on the main roads (which were built by turnpike trusts that financed them through tolls), and stay at inns for many trips, including any to London, which was around twenty hours from Somerset at the time. Staying in London, as well as servants, horses, and table (i.e., food), were further heavy expenses.
18. A private gentleman was someone of high rank who did not play a prominent role in society, as Sir Walter does, at least in his own mind, and to a certain degree in reality by virtue of his title.
19. Mr. Shepherd probably gains much of his income from the fees he charges for serving as Sir Walter’s agent. Agents often undertook the daily managing of estates, which could include collecting rents, paying wages, ordering repairs, and selling products from the estate; it is highly unlikely Sir Walter bothers with such matters. Mr. Shepherd would also take care of legal transactions, such as the mortgages mentioned above, and probably advises Sir Walter on his investments. Moreover, Mr. Shepherd would gain social prestige from being the agent of a high-ranking client. Thus he would have good reason to work assiduously to save this client from bankruptcy, while making sure, during the difficult process, to avoid causing any offense.
20. The house and its grounds, both requiring many servants to maintain and operate, usually constituted much of a typical landowner’s expenses.
21. scruple: hesitation, uncertainty.
22. Hospitality was frequently fundamental to the life of a wealthy landowner. This could mean large parties of houseguests, or annual celebrations in which the entire neighborhood, rich and poor, was invited to the grounds and offered food and entertainment. Such hospitality was considered a basic social duty, while offering the opportunity to display one’s wealth and importance. Of course, all this represented a considerable expense.
23. When no longer occupying a prominent house, with its rich history, Sir Walter would be freed from external pressure to maintain a certain level of expense. Whether he would still be looked up to in his new situation is debatable: this is probably just flattery to help secure his agreement.
24. Country houses were usually surrounded by elaborate landscapes offering beautiful views and attractive walks. They would include lawns and groves of trees, the latter often planted as part of the landscaping design.
25. attended: awaited.
26. Bath, thanks to several warm springs beneath its surface, had developed into the most popular spa town in England. Visitors hoped that bathing in or drinking its warm waters could heal their ailments, and their presence also made it a center for social life and entertainment, with many coming purely for enjoyment. Throughout the eighteenth ce
ntury it was England’s leading resort, attracting the elite of society and providing the setting for a number of novels and plays. Jane Austen sets substantial portions of two of her novels there, this one and Northanger Abbey, and she refers to it in all her novels.
Around 1800 its character began to change. It lost popularity as a vacation destination, as the seaside became increasingly the venue of choice for those seeking pleasure or health, while becoming more popular as a permanent residence, especially for retirees. After Jane Austen’s father retired from his clerical position in 1801, he and his wife and daughters moved to Bath, staying until his death five years later. For them and others Bath offered a combination of beautiful architecture, the result of its eighteenth-century boom, a wide variety of entertainments, excellent shopping, and the presence of many other genteel people. Hence Sir Walter’s consideration of Bath, and decision to settle there, reflects a growing trend—though the visits of others to Bath later in the novel show that its old functions had not disappeared.
27. The cost of living was higher in London, which by this time had more than a million people (as opposed to Bath’s fewer than 40,000). London also offered many further temptations to spend, including an array of expensive shops, numerous entertainments, and the presence of the wealthiest people in England, whose extravagance would be emulated by those eager to win acceptance in the best social circles. This may be why Mr. Shepherd believes Sir Walter cannot be trusted there.
28. Proximity to Bath is one of the reasons Somerset has been chosen as the home of the main characters; the other is proximity to Lyme (see map). Jane Austen, who had no connection to Somerset, always chooses her settings according to what will work best for the plot. Her characters never display distinctive regional traits; such traits had in actuality ceased to be very prominent among upper-class English people by this time.
