by Max Hastings
The case still seems overwhelmingly strong that Germany bore principal blame. Even if it did not conspire to bring war about, it declined to exercise its power to prevent the outbreak by restraining Austria. Even if Berlin did not seek to contrive a general European conflagration, it was willing for one, because it believed that it could win. The greatest mistake of the German leaders was to view their grand ambitions through the prism of warriors, supposing that power could be secured and increased only through battle, and grossly underrating their country’s economic and industrial might. The Kaiser, Bethmann Hollweg and Moltke attempted a stroke of Bismarckian ruthlessness and magnificence, such as Bismarck himself would never have made.
Once the struggle had begun, it would be entirely mistaken to suppose, as do so many people in the twenty-first century, that it did not matter which side won. The allies imposed a clumsy peace settlement at Versailles in 1919, but if the Germans had instead been dictating the terms as victors, European freedom, justice and democracy would have paid a dreadful forfeit. Germany adopted territorial war aims in the course of the First World War which were not much less ambitious than those favoured by its ruler in the Second. It thus seems quite wrong to describe the undoubted European tragedy of 1914–18 as also futile, a view overwhelmingly driven in the eyes of posterity by the human cost of the military experience. If the Kaiserreich did not deserve to triumph, those who fought and died in the ultimately successful struggle to prevent such an outcome did not perish for nothing, save insofar as all sacrifice in all wars is just cause for lamentation.
‘Dreadnoughts have no wheels!’: German and Austrian officers savour the Supreme Warlord’s wit.
STATESMEN
Poincaré and the Tsar during the July 1914 French state visit to St Petersburg.
STATESMEN
Asquith and Lloyd George at The Wharf, the prime minister’s Berkshire country home.
STATESMEN
Clockwise from bottom left: Pasic, Berchtold, Sazonov, Grey, Churchill, Bethmann Hollweg.
Every army, including that of the Tsar, solicited divine assistance before marching.
WARLORDS
Left, clockwise from left: Moltke, Ludendorff, Hindenburg, Kitchener, Lanrezac.
Right, clockwise from left: Conrad, Joffre, French, Haig, Falkenhayn, Franchet d’Espèrey.
Russians in Galicia.
SERBIA
Serbian troops advance.
SERBIA
Serbian C-in-C Putnik.
SERBIA
Potiorek, Austrian field commander.
SERBIA
Corporal Egon Kisch and comrade.
Austrian troops in Serbia conduct punitive mass executions of civilians, a ritual often photographed and publicised to discourage francs-tireurs.
An Austrian siege piece of the type used to destroy the Liège forts.
Kluck, commanding the German First Army.
Bülow, commanding Second Army.
Some of Joffre’s men, before the deluge.
Belgians doing their modest best.
75s – the legendary French soixante-quinzes – in action.
Smith-Dorrien, who chose to fight at Le Cateau.
Wilson – ‘that poisonous tho’ clever ruffian’ – with Foch and Col. Huguet.
Murray, the BEF’s chief of staff, who wrote of Sir John French: ‘I knew better than anyone how his health, temper and temperament rendered him unfit … for the crisis we had to face.’
A spectacle familiar to countless French and British troops in the summer of 1914: Germans advance.
Frenchmen display the offensive spirit so prized by Joffre.
Austro-Hungarian cavalry struggle in Galicia.
British soldiers deploy on their first battlefield
British soldiers await the enemy.
THE EASTERN FRONT
Samsonov.
THE EASTERN FRONT
Russian soldiers are taken prisoner in tens of thousands after Tannenberg.
THE EASTERN FRONT
Russians pay the price for their commanders’ boldness
THE EASTERN FRONT
Rennenkampf.
Fortunino Matania’s painting of L Battery’s action at Néry.
One of the few apparently authentic photographic images of the retreat: men of the Middlesex under fire.
At home, in every country women were dramatically empowered to fill the places of millions of absent men – here, a Suffolk girl stands proudly at the handle of a Lowestoft tram.
Russian soldiers in bivouac: such men became the revolutionaries of 1917, if they survived so long.
An idealised image of a Russian field hospital. Casualties of all the armies received grossly inadequate care, and often none at all, in the early months of the conflict.
The face of the Western Front, winter 1914: trenches, machine-guns, mud and wire. Except for a posed shot such as this one, no soldier of any army willingly exposed himself above a parapet.
WITNESSES OF CATASTROPHE
1: Dorothie Feilding; 2: Edouard Cœurdevey; 3: Jacques Rivière; 4: Lt. Col. Richard Hentsch; 5: Paul Lintier; 6: Vladimir Littauer; 7: Constantin Schneider; 8: Lionel Tennyson; 9: Venetia Stanley; 10: Louis Spears; 11: Helene Schweida and her later husband, Wilhelm Kaisen; 12: Louis Barthas; 13: François Mayer.
The war created untold civilian misery, inflicting separation, hunger, destitution and the loss of loved ones upon societies across Europe. Here, one family among millions of French, Belgian, Russian, Polish, Serb, East Prussian and Galician refugees flees a battlefield, while behind them gunners approach it.
British soldiers in Belgium during the winter of 1914 contemplate an environment that would remain essentially unaltered for four years, unless exchanged for a permanent resting place in local earth.
Footnotes
fn1 The term ‘casualties’ signifies soldiers killed, missing, wounded or captured.
fn2 Mobilisation dates are confusing, because in all cases preliminary military measures had been adopted earlier, and in most cases heads of state signed the formal decrees after troops began to move.
fn3 Emphases in original.
Bibliography
Papers, Journals, Documents and Internet Sources
Abschiedsfeier für das Ersatzbataillon des Inf.-Rgts. 75, Bremen 1914
Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane and Becker, Annette 14–18: Understanding the Great War Hill & Wang 2002
Becker, Jean-Jacques La Guerre êtait-elle inevitable? pp.41–3
—Les Innovations stratégiques pp.86–7
—La Bataille de la Marne, ou le fin des illusions pp.123, 125–6
Blume, Wilhelm von Inwiefern haben sich die Bedingungen des Erfolges im Kriege seit 1871 verändert? [How have the conditions required for success in war altered since 1871?] Vierteljahrshefte für Truppenführung und Heereskunde 5 1908
—Der Einfluß des heutigen Verkehrs- und Nachrichtenmittel auf die Kriegsführung [The impact of modern transportation and communication media on warfare] in Beihefte zum Militär-Wochenblatt 1910
—Kriegserfahrung (War experience), in Militär-Wochenblatt 1908 No. 26 pp.583–90
Brenner, Stefan Das Kriegsgefangenenlager in Knittelfeld: Eine Untersuchung der Akten des Kriegsarchivs Wien von den ersten Bemühungen Otto Zeilingers zur Errichtung des Lagers Knittelfeld bis zur Umwandlung des Kriegsgefangenenlagers in ein Militärspital MA thesis Graz 2011
Castle, Terry Our First View of the End of the World: The US Chronicle of Higher Education 5.11.04
Chiari, Bernard and Gerhard P. Groß (eds) Am Rande Europas? Der Balkan – Raum und Bevölkerung als Wirkungsfelder militärischer Gewalt, Munich Oldenbourg 2009 pp.121–36
Cowan, John Manuscript letters from France copied to the author by a descendant
Emmet, Major Robert An American in the British Army during World War I, unpublished MS by courtesy of Anthony Gray
Evans. R.J.W. Communicating Empire: The Hapsburgs and Their Critics 1700–1919 Transactions of the RHS
2008
Festing, Maurice an unpublished account of his experiences as a Royal Marine officer at Antwerp, MS courtesy of John Festing
Förster, Stig Der deutsche Generalstab und die Illusion des kurzen Krieges, 1871–1914. Metakritik eines Mythos in Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen 54 (1995), pp.61–95
Howard, Michael Encounter January 1964
Illingworth, Percy private papers of the Liberal chief whip in the possession of James Illingworth
Morgan, Kenneth O. England, Britain and the Audit of War Transactions of the RHS 2006
Mourir pour la patrie Editions de Seuil 1992
Pallavicini, Alexander Markgraf Pallavicini B 1600 [two collections of diaries in the Austrian State Archives]
Russky Invalid No. 163 27.7.14, Sunday Section ‘The Public Life’
Samborn, Josh ‘Unsettling the Russian Empire’ in The Journal of Modern History June 2005 pp.295–309
—Daily Life in Russian Poland, Festschrift pp.44–55
—‘The Mobilization of 1914 and the Question of the Russian Nation: A Re-examination’ Slavic Review Vol. LIX No. 2 Summer 2000
Schmitt, Bernadotte The Fashion and Future of History: Historical Studies and Addresses Cleveland Press of Western Reserve University 1960 pp.129–50
Seligmann, Matthew ‘“A Barometer of National Confidence”: A British Assessment of the Role of Insecurity in the Formulation of German Military Policy before the First World War’ English Historical Review Vol. CXVII No. 471 April 2002 pp.333–55
—‘New Weapons for New Targets’ International History Review Vol. XXX No. 2 June 2008 pp.303–31
—‘Switching Horses: The Admiralty’s Recognition of the Threat from Germany 1900–1905’ International History Review Vol. XXX No. 2 June 2008 pp.239–58
—‘The Mobilization of 1914 and The Question of the Russian Nation: A Re-examination’ Slavic Review Vol. LIX No. 2 Summer 2000 pp.272–89
Stengers, Jean Le Rôle de l’opinion publique dans la genèse d’une guerre: 1870 et 1914 (Internet)
Trachtenberg, Marc The Coming of the First World War: A Reassessment in History and Strategy Princeton 1991 pp.47–99
Überegger, Oswald Man mache diese Leute, wenn sie halbwegs verdächtig erscheinen, nieder. Militärische Normübertretungen, Guerillakrieg und ziviler Widerstand an der Balkanfront 1914 in Rougevin-Baville, Col. J Revue historique de l’armée Ministère des armées 1964: L’aéronautique militaire française, les débuts de la guerre aérienne 1914
Ueber Angriff und Verteidigung befestigter Stellungen (On attacking and defending fortified emplacements), in Militär-Wochenblatt 1909 No. 18
La Vie quotidienne à Nice en août 1914 d’après l’Eclaireur de Nice (Internet)
Books
Adam, H. Pearl Paris Sees it Through: A Diary 1914–1919 Hodder & Stoughton 1919
Albert, King of the Belgians Le Roi Albert à travers de ses lettres inédites 1882–1916 ed. Thielemans and Vandevoude Brussels 1982
Albertini, Luigi The Origins of the War of 1914 OUP 1953
Allard, Capitaine Jules Journal d’un gendarme 1914–1916 Présentation d’Arlette Farge Bayard Éditions 2010
Ambrožič, Matjaž Dnevniški zapiski dr. Evgena Lampeta (1898–1917) Ljubljana 2007
Andrew, Christopher The Defence of the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5 Allen Lane 2005
Angelow, Jürgen (ed.) Der Erste Weltkrieg auf dem Balkan Perspektiven der Forschung, Berlin 2011
Anglesey, The Marquis of A History of the British Cavalry Vol. VII Leo Cooper 1996
Arand, Tobias (ed.) Die ‘Urkatastrophe’ als Erinnerung – Geschichtskultur des Ersten Weltkriegs Münster ZfL-Verlag 2006
Ascoli, David The Mons Star Harrap 1981
Asquith, Violet Champion Redoubtable: The Diaries and Letters of Violet Bonham-Carter 1914–45 ed. Mark Pottle Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1998
Audoin-Rouzeau, Stéphane L’Enfer c’est la boue! Paris Seuil 1992
Avakumović, Joven D. Memoari Izdavačka knjižarnica Zorana Stojanovića Sremski Karlovci-Novi Sad 2008
Babington, Anthony For the Sake of Example Leo Cooper 1983
Baker-Carr, C.D. From Chauffeur to Brigadier Benn 1930
Ball, Simon The Guardsmen HarperCollins 2004
Barbusse, Henri Le Feu Flammarion 1917
Baring, Maurice Flying Corps Headquarters 1914–18 Buchan & Enright 1985
Barluet, Alain Les fraternisations de Noël
Barthas, Louis Les Carnets de guerre de Louis Barthas, tonnelier, 1914–1918 La Decouverte/Poche 2003
Basedow, Heinow von Reiseeindrücke aus dem militärischen Rußland, in: Beihefte zum Militär-Wochenblatt 1910
Becker, Annette Oubliés de la Grande Guerre: Humanitaire et culture de guerre Hachette Littératures Editions Noêsis 1998
Becker, Jean-Jacques La Guerre était-elle inévitable?
—La France en guerre, 1914–1918: La Grande Mutation Paris 1985
Beesly, Patrick Room 40: British Naval Intelligence 1914–18 Hamish Hamilton 1982
Belloc, Hilaire The Two Maps of Europe Pearson 1915
Bennett, Arnold The Letters of Arnold Bennett ed. James Hepburn OUP 1968
Berliner Geschichtswerkstatt (ed.) August 1914: Ein Volk zieht in den Krieg, Berlin Nishen 1989
Bernhardi, Gen. Friedrich von Germany and the Next War Edward Arnold 1914
Bertie, Francis The Diary of Sir Francis Bertie of Thame, 1914–1918 ed. Lady Algernon Gordon Lennox Hodder & Stoughton 1924
Bihl, Wolfdieter Der Erste Weltkrieg 1914–1918. Chronik – Daten – Fakten Vienna Böhlau 2010
Binding, Rudolf A Fatalist at War Allen & Unwin 1929
Biwald, Brigitte Von Helden und Krüppeln. Das österreichisch-ungarische Militärsanitätswesen im Ersten Weltkrieg Vols I, II Vienna ÖBV & Hpt 2002
Blenkinsop, Maj-Gen Sir L.J. et al. History of the Great War: Veterinary Services HMSO 1925
Bloem, Walter The Advance from Mons 1914 Peter Davies 1930
Blond, Georges La Marne Presses de la Cité 1962
Borck, Karin and Kölm, Lothar (eds) Gefangen in Sibirien. Tagebuch eines ostpreußischen Mädchens 1914–1920 Osnabrück Fibre 2001
Boyle, Andrew The Riddle of Erskine Childers Hutchinson 1977
Bridges, Sir Tom Alarms and Excursions Longman 1938
Buitenhuis, Peter The Great War of Words Batsford 1989
Bywater, Hector Cruisers in Battle Constable 1939
Capes, Harriet M. Diary of a French Army Chaplain Abbé Felix Klein trans. from La Guerre vue d’une ambulance Andrew Melrose 1915
Cave, Nigel and Sheldon, Jack Le Cateau 26 August 1914 Pen & Sword 2008
Charykov, N.V. Glimpses of High Politics Allen & Unwin 1931
Chatfield, Lord Ernle The Navy and Defence: An Autobiography Heinemann 1942
Chickering, Roger The Great War and Urban Life in Germany CUP 2007
—Imperial Germany and the Great War CUP 1998
Churchill, Winston S. The World Crisis Vol. I Thornton Butterworth 1923
—My Early Life Eland 2000
Clark, Christopher The Sleepwalkers Penguin 2012
Clarke, Tom My Northcliffe Diary Gollancz 1931
Clayton, Anthony Paths of Glory: The French Army 1914–1918 Cassell 2003
Cocho, Paul Mes Carnets de guerre et de prisonnier 1914–1919 Presses Universitaires de Rennes 2010
Cœurdevey, Edouard Carnets de guerre 1914–1918: Un Témoin lucide Plon 2008
Cole, Laurence, Hämmerle, Christa and Scheutz, Martin (eds) Glanz – Gewalt – Gehorsam. Militär und Gesellschaft in der Habsburgermonarchie (1800 bis 1918) Essen Klartext 2011
Cooper, C.E. Behind the Lines: One Woman’s War Norman & Hobbes 1982
Corday, Michel The Paris Front: An Unpublished Diary 1914–18 NY 1934
Corns, Cathryn and Hughes-Wilson, John Blindfold and Alone: British Military Executions in the Great War Cassell 2001
Cornwall, Mark The Hapsburg Elite and the South Slav Question
&n
bsp; —A Living Anachronism? European Diplomacy and the Hapsburg Monarchy ed. L. Nobelt and T.G. Otte Vienna Böhlau 2010
Craster J.M. (ed.) Fifteen Rounds a Minute Macmillan 1976
Dangerfield, George The Strange Death of Liberal England Constable 1935
Dedijer, Vladimir The Road to Sarajevo MacGibbon & Kee 1967
Delabeye, B (Lt) Avant la ligne Maginot. Admirable résistance de la 1ère armée à la frontière des Vosges. Héroïque sacrifice de l’infanterie française Montpellier Causse Graille and Castelnau 1939
Delmotte, Maurice Vie quotidienne en France occupée: Journaux de Maurice Delmotte 1914–1918 ed. Philippe, Nathalie L’Harmattan 2007
