40.W. Lumsden, “An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika territory, in 1952–1953 II. General description and epidemiology,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 49(1) (1955) 33–57.
41.M. C. Robinson, “An epidemic of virus disease in Southern Province, Tanganyika territory, in 1952–1953,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 49(1) (1955) 28–32.
42.F. Ludwig, Church and State in Tanzania: Aspects of a Changing Relationship, 1961–1994, (Leiden: Brill, 1999).
43.Ibid.
44.G. Kuno, “A re-examination of the history of etiologic confusion between dengue and chikungunya,” PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 9(11) (2015).
45.M. S. Kinch, A Prescription For Change: The Looming Crisis in Drug Discovery (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2016).
46.K. F. Smith, M. Goldberg, S. Rosenthal, L. Carlson, J. Chen, C. Chen, S. Ramachandran, “Global rise in human infectious disease outbreaks,” Journal of The Royal Society Interface 11(101) (2014).
47.A. Mack, E. R. Choffnes, M. A. Hamburg, D. A. Relman, Microbial Evolution and Co-Adaptation: A Tribute to the Life and Scientific Legacies of Joshua Lederberg: Workshop Summary, (Washington D.C.: National Academies Press, 2009).
48.M. E. Woolhouse, R. Howey, E. Gaunt, L. Reilly, M. Chase-Topping, N. Savill, “Temporal trends in the discovery of human viruses,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 275(1647) (2008) 2111–2115.
49.T. Daniel, “Leon Charles Albert Calmette and BCG vaccine,” The International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease 9(9) (2005) 944–945.
50.A. Calmette, C. Guérin, A. Boquet, L. Nègre, “La vaccination préventive contre la tuberculose par le BCG,” American Journal of Public Health, 18(8) (1928), 1075.
51.B. Lange, “Die Calmettesche Schutzimpfung und die Säuglingserkrankungen in Lübeck,” Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift 56(22) (1930) 927–929.
52.M. Kwa, C. S. Plottel, M. J. Blaser, S. Adams, “The Intestinal Microbiome and Estrogen Receptor-Positive Female Breast Cancer,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 108(8) (2016).
53.M. Blaser, Missing Microbes: How the Overuse of Antibiotics Is Fueling Our Modern Plagues, (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 2014).
54.Ibid.
55.J. O’Neill, Tackling Drug-Resistant Infections Globally: Final Report and Recommendations (London: Review on Antimicrobial Resistance, 2016).
56.Anonymous, “HHS Secretary Tom Price Says States Should Decide on Vaccines.” The Daily Beast, March 7, 2017. Web. February 17, 2018.
57.M. S. Kinch, J. Merkel, S. Umlauf, “Trends in pharmaceutical targeting of clinical indications: 1930–2013,” Drug Discovery Today 19(11) (2014) 1682–5.
58.R. Horesh, “ Technical aspects of trade negotiations.” New Zealand Branch, Australian Agricultural Economics Society Conference, Lincoln College, Canterbury, New Zealand, July 1988.
59.A. Travis, “Will social impact bonds solve society’s most intractable problems?” The Guardian (London), October 6, 2010. Web. February 17, 2018.
60.Anonymous, Private backers fund scheme to cut prisoner reoffending, BBC News, September 10, 2010. Web. February 17, 2018.
61.K. Alibeck, S. Handelman, Biohazard: The Chilling True Story of the Largest Covert Biological Weapons Program in the World, (New York: Dell Publishing, 1999).
62.T. P. Monath, J. R. Caldwell, W. Mundt, J. Fusco, C. S. Johnson, M. Buller, J. Liu, B. Gardner, G. Downing, P. S. Blum, “ACAM2000 clonal Vero cell culture vaccinia virus (New York City Board of Health strain)–a second-generation smallpox vaccine for biological defense,” International Journal of Infectious Diseases 8 (2004) 31–44.
Acknowledgments
There are many people, who deserve my deep gratitude. First and foremost is my family, who endured endless nights and missed family time, so I could selfishly complete this book. My wife, Dr. Kelly Carles-Kinch, deserves much credit for her understanding given the countless meals, movies and conversations, when I was distracted in thinking about infected cows, the sources of pus or obscure historical figures. Likewise, my daughter Sarah and son Grant provided the inspiration for this book as both (mostly) listened politely while being subjected to constant waves of medical and historical trivia. I would also like to thank my extended work family, including my boss and professional inspiration, Dr. Holden Thorp, who encouraged and helped expand my horizons and for supporting our work at the Center for Research Innovation in Biotechnology at Washington University in St Louis. Our team, past and present, at Washington University includes fantastic investigators, including Dr. Rebekah Griesenauer, Constantino Schillebeeckx, David Maness, Meredith Herd, Ryan Moore, and Thomas Krenning. Indeed, this book arose from a project conducted at the Center, where our team was the first to catalog all innovative vaccines ever developed.
This work was partially inspired by multiple conversations with the late Bill Rosen while writing A Prescription for Change. In wonderful discussions that often lasted for hours at a time, Bill encouraged me to expand beyond my immediate academic focus and expand into the personalities behind the research. Bill’s outstanding books, including Justinian’s Flea and Miracle Cure, set a bar that this work could never hope to match. Another Bill, this one with the last name of Bryson, also set the standard for how to convey technical information to a general audience. In my humble opinion, the most brilliantly-enjoyable book of the past century is Bill Bryson’s A Short History of Nearly Everything, a work matched only by Cosmos by the late Carl Sagan. I would also like to thank my agent, Don Fehr at Trident Media Group and importantly, Jessica Case at Pegasus. This is my first trade book and Jessica has been exceedingly patient in introducing a not-terribly bright academic to the real world of publishing.
Finally, I would like to thank another inspiration, Brian Deer of The Sunday Times of London. In a few, short exchanges, Brian conveyed his story of how a self-admitted vaccine skeptic deployed his deep investigational skills to reveal the truth behind the anti-vaccinator movement, not just once (for the DPT scandals), but again years later with the emergence of the MMR charlatans, led by Andrew Wakefield, who preyed upon the fears of well-meaning parents. Brian’s investigative reporting has already saved thousands of lives and despite this service, he has had to endure the vocal and often violent disdain of a misguided minority of ardent anti-vaccinators. In a troubling time, where expertise is fundamentally doubted and fundamental facts are disputed by a fringe minority, we increasingly owe our safety and liberty to a small number of heroic investigative reporters such as Brian.
Index
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
A
ACAM2000, 273
acellular vaccines, 216–217, 218–219
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), 82, 133, 140–141, 144–145, 212, 262
acquired immunity, 79–80
active immunity, 155, 178
activism, against vaccines. see anti-vaccinator movement
acyclovir, 139–140, 144
Adams, John, 41–42
Adams, Samuel, 41
Addison, William, 73
adjuvants, 205–206
Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, 249–250
Aetolian League, 6
Africa, 51, 259–260
Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius, 8
AIDS. See acquired immune deficiency syndrome
AidsVac, 237–238
albumin, 168–169
Alexander the Great, 2–4
Alibek, Ken, 272
Alice (princess), 107
allergies, 167, 172
Althoff, Friedrich, 154
aluminum hydroxide, 205–206
America Invents Act (AIA), 28–29
American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 41, 42
American Medical Liberty League, 46
Amherst, Jeffrey, 31
anatomic pathology, 99
Andral, Gabriel, 70–71
anelloviridae, 119
anergy, 87
Angola, 51
aniline dyes, 73–75, 120
animalcules, 91, 94–95
Annales de l’Institute Pasteur, 189
anthrax, 75, 79, 94, 97–98, 177–180, 262
Anthropocene, 115
antibiotics, 62, 66, 112–114, 125, 153, 263–267
antibodies, 80, 148–151, 155, 167–172, 199–200
antigen presenting cells, 83, 84
antigens, 80, 84, 85
antimetabolites, 135, 139, 141, 144
Antiochus III, 6
antiretrovirals, 142–144, 212
antiserum, 156, 159–166, 190
antitoxins, 62–63, 151, 155
anti-vaccinator movement, xi, xiii–xiv, xvi–xvii, 198, 267
danger of, 268, 276–279
DTP vaccine and, 207–211, 218–219
history of, xviii
ignorance and, 277–279
MMR vaccine and, 231–246
smallpox vaccine and, 44–47
Wakefield and, 238–242, 243
antivirals, 132, 141–146
Antonine Plague, 8–9, 10, 80, 123
Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius, 8
Antony, Marc, 1, 89
Archaemenid Empire, 3
Arrowsmith (Lewis), 124, 129
Artashata, 3
Asperger, Hans, 234
Athens, 10–11
attenuation, 12–13, 178–183, 230
Augustus, Caesar, 8
Aurelius, Marcus, 9
Autenrieth, Johann Heinrich Ferdinand von, 102, 103
autism
fear of, xi
increase in diagnosis of, 234–235
intestinal flora and, 114, 266
understanding of, 233–234
vaccines and, xiii–xiv, xvi–xvii, 209, 235, 238–242, 277
autoclaves, 117
autoimmune disorders, 86
avian influenza (H5N1), 12
AZT, 141–144, 212
B
Babylonian Captivity, 59
Bacille Calmette Guerin (BCG) vaccine, 264, 265
bacteria, xiii
see also specific types
benefits of, 111–114
drug-resistant, 142, 263–265, 267
eukaryotes and, 66
genetics, 62
gut, 113–114, 266
infections caused by, 131
link between disease and, 74
bacteriology, 75–78, 98–101
bacteriophages, 119–128, 172
Bactrim, 237
Balard, Antoine Jerome, 95
Balmis, Francisco Javier de, 48
Balmis Expedition, 48, 51
Barr, Richard, 238
basophils, 75, 83
Battle at Sedan, 176
Battle of Actium, 1
Battle of Cannae, 5
Battle of Gaugamela, 3
Battle of Issus, 3
Battle of Magnesia, 6
Battle of Tannenberg, 152
Battle of the Bulge, 199
Battle of the Granicus, 3
Battle of the Little Bighorn, 229
Battle of Thermopylae, 6
B cells, 80, 85, 149–150, 170, 171
Bedson, Henry, 55, 56
Behring, Adolf Emil, 152–159
Behring, Emil, Jr., 154
Beijerinck, Martinus, 118, 120
Belgium, 199
Belisarius, 193
Bell, Andrew, 37
Bell, Philip John Livingstone, 116
Bendetti, Vincent Count, 175
Benedict XI, 59
Bergmann, Werner, 135, 139
Beria, Lavrenti, 125
Bering land bridge, 15–16
Bertucci, Nicolo, 58
Bessus, 3
Best, Margaret, 237
Bichat, Marie-Francois Xavier, 69–70
Binz, Karl, 153
biological warfare, 30–31, 104–106
Biologics Control Act, 164
biotechnology, 63–64, 171–172, 261
bioterrorism, xv, 262–263
Bismark, Otto von, 174–176
Black Death, 60, 193
Black September, 248
Blaser, Martin J., 114, 266
Bleuler, Eugen, 234
Bloch, Eduard, 153
blood, fractionation, 167–169
Boer, Johann Lucas, 98–99
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 39, 92, 93, 199
Boniface VIII, 59
booster shots, 217–218
Bordet, Jules Jean Baptiste Vincent, 199–201
Bordetella pertussis, 200–201, 203–204
Botox, 103
botulism, 101–106, 108
Bouquet, Henry, 31
Boylston, Zabdiel, 24–25
Brazil, 51
breast cancer, 114, 153
Bretonneau, Pierre, 107
Briggs, Michael, 236
British Sick and Wounded Board, 38
Broussais, Francois Joseph Victor, 69–71
Brower, David Ross, 112
Brower, William, 163
Brutus, Lucius Junius, 89
Bryn Athyn Cathedral, 45
bubonic plague, 60, 108, 193–195
bursa of Fabricius, 169–170
Byzantine Empire, 193
C
Caesar, Augustus, 1
Caesar, Julius, 8, 89
Cahokia, 17
Calmette, Leon Charles Albert, 264
cancer cells, 135, 171
cancer treatments, 135, 143, 153
Candau, Marcelino, 50
canker sores, 133–134
Canter, Leonard, 137–138
carbolic acid, 97–98, 195
carboxymethylcellulose, 109–110, 111
Caroline of Anspach, Princess of Wales, 21
Carthage, 5, 6
Cas9, 63
Cassius, Gaius Avidius, 8
CBER. See Centers for Biologics Evaluation and Research
CD4 cells, 81–82
CDC. See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CDER. See Center for Drug Evaluation and Research
cell culture, 226
cell division, 65, 66
Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), 165
Center for Drugs and Biologics, 165
Centers for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER), 165
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 50, 56, 104, 129, 270, 273
central tolerance, 81, 86
cervical cancer, 267
Chamberland, Charles, 97, 116–117, 180–181, 189
Chamberland-Pasteur filter, 117, 118
Chang, Timothy, 169–170
Chapman, John (Johnny Appleseed), 45
charlatans, 9, 232, 266
Charles IV, 48
Chauliac, Guy de, 57–61, 193
cheetahs, 13
chemotherapy, 144
chicken pox, xii, xvii, 139, 145
chikungunya virus, 259–260
childhood diseases, 128–129
see also specific diseases
rise of, xvii–xviii
susceptibility to, xi
children, vaccination of, 43
China, 193–194
Chinese medicine, 19
chirality, 95–96
Chirurgia Magna, 57–58
chloroplasts, 66
cholera, 120, 182–185
Chopin, Frederic, 264
chromosomes, 62
circulatory shock, 167–168
Civil War, 44, 123
Clark, Tom, 217
Clement V, 59
Clement VI, 59–60
Clericis laicos, 59
climate change, 258
Clostridium botulinum, 104
Clostridium difficile, 113
Clovis peoples, 15–16
clustered regu
larly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), 63–64
CMV. See cytomegalovirus
Cohn, Edwin Joseph, 167–169
Colbert, Burwell, 43
Cold-Eeze, 132
cold sores, 133–134
Cold War, 49–50, 79
colleges and universities, infectious disease outbreaks at, ix–x, xiv, xvii, 243, 245, 277
Columbia University, 40
Columbus, Christopher, 17, 26, 92, 222
common cold, 129–131, 132
complement cascade, 151
concrete, 2
Congo, 51
consanguineous mating, 13
contagiousness, 116, 128
Continental Army, 40
Continental System, 39
Convivo-Medical Society, 31–32
Cooper, Anderson, 241
Cortes, Hernando, 18
Coulter, Harris, 208–209
cowpox, 27, 31–36, 38
Coxe, John Redman, 43
Crick, Francis, 139
Crohn’s disease, 232–233
croup, 106
Crusades, 58, 59
CSL Behring, 157
Cuba, 222, 252–253
cupping, 186
Custer, George Armstrong, 229
Cuvier, Georges, 102
cytokines, 67–68, 72, 73, 81, 82, 256–257
cytokine storm, 81, 108–109, 256–257
cytomegalovirus (CMV), 139–140, 170
D
Dalton, John, 150
Daltons, 150
Dangerous Pathogens Advisory Group, 55
Darius III, 3
Darwin, Charles, 74
Davaine, Casimir, 177–178
D.C. sniper attacks, xv–xvi
Deer, Brian, 235–240
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), xv, 262
defense mechanisms, 61–64, 67–69
see also immune system
Delaware Indians, 31
dengue fever, 255–260
De Niro, Robert, 241
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), xiii, 62, 65, 139, 142
viral, 63–64
Desault, Pierre-Joseph, 70
Descombey, Pierre, 192
de Soto, Hernando, 17
d’Herelle, Felix, 121–126
Diadochi, 3, 4
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 93
diphtheria, 106–108, 155–156, 159–160, 164, 173, 190–192
diphtheria antisera, 155–156, 159–165
disease
see also infectious diseases; specific diseases
germ theory of, 89–90, 212
link between bacteria and, 74
DNA. See deoxyribonucleic acid
DNases, 63
Drake, Sir Francis, 123
Dreyfus, Alfred, 189, 240
drug discoveries, 135–141
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