Smellie, William 413
Philosophy of Natural History 413
Smith, Adam xxiv, 242, 243, 250, 434
The Wealth of Nations 242, 401, 409
Smith, Horace 382
smoking 73, 155
Smollett, Tobias 191–2
Ferdinand Count Fathom 192, 304
Smyth, James Carmichael 244
Social Darwinism 430, 431, 444
socialism 312, 423, 425, 430–31
Société des Amis des Noirs (Blacks) 321
Socrates 41
soul: immortal 41, 141
physiology of 170
rational 131, 138, 151
of rebellious angels 281–2
88, 93, 94, 126, 151, 228, 248, 286
world soul 89
see also animal attributes
reincarnation
Southey, Robert 335–6, 339, 340, 346, 365, 384, 400
The Curse of Kehama 391
Letters from England 335
on Malthus 410
Sowle, Andrew 63, 67
The Upright Lives of the Heathen 69, 70
Sowle, Tace 63, 549n
Spang, Rebecca 207, 573–4n
Sparrman, Anders 202
Spartans 5
Spence, Robert 367
Spencer, 2nd Earl 292
Spencer, John 546n
Spinoza, Benedict de 115
Stapel, Joannes Bodæus 237
Star 307
Stark, Willam 243–4
Stevenson, Robert Louis 421
Stewart, John 325, 332, 342, 347–55, 348, 357, 360, 362, 367, 391, 392, 596n, 602n
Stirling, James 245
Stott, Rosalie 242
Strabo 68, 92, 109, 250
Geography 46
Stuart, Major Gen. Charles 286–7
Stukeley, William 98
sugar 60, 203, 210, 343, 388, 573n
superstition/superstitious 101, 125, 288
vegetarians seen as 6, 13, 42, 54, 56, 89, 93, 126, 134, 151, 153, 176, 192, 210, 228, 261, 284, 286, 290
Svensson, Isaac 148
Swedenborg, Emmanuel 422
Swift, Jonathan 87
Gulliver’s Travels 47–8
Sydenham, Thomas 174
Symonds, Henry 341–2
sympathy xxii, 244, 255, 295, 298, 332, 354, 556n
in animals 221
for animals xxiii–xxiv, 176–8, 180, 188–91, 222–5, 301, 333, 336, 381
as corporal process 136–7, 201
counter-vegetarian backlash against 215–19, 223, 225–6
distance between sympathiser and sympathised
204, 206–7, 225, 296, 300, 573n
in ecosystem 420
evolutionary 433
instinctive 13, 214, 301, 319, 321, 335
microcosmic 75, 76, 77
Newton’s 99–100, 108
radicals and 298–9, 338
Rousseau on 197, 204, 206–7, 298, 419
stifled by custom of meat eating xvii, 177–8, 319, 321, 334–5, 364
universal xxv, 95, 299–300
in women 223–4
sympatheia xxiii, 37, 75–7, 126, 249, 285–6, 542–3n
syncretism 39, 49, 60, 76–7, 124, 230, 250, 550n
see also Neoplatonism
Talleyrand, Charles 303
Tany, Thomas 17–19, 30, 36, 38, 74
Tatler 218
Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste 125
Travels in India 58, 109
taxonomy 147–8, 196, 199
Taylor, Dr 166, 175
Taylor, John 352
Taylor, Thomas 323–5, 351
Vindication of the Rights of Brutes 324–5
teetotalism, see alcohol
temperance 4, 141, 168, 170, 263, 338
Temple, Sir William xx, 87–8, 376
Terry, Edward 55, 69, 79
Tertullian 54, 151
theodicy 220, 282, 359, 382, 386, 387, 412
Theosophical Society 426, 439
Thomson, James 164, 215–17, 224
Liberty 217
The Seasons 215, 216–17, 301
Thomson, William 296, 312
Thoreau, Henry David 418–22, 427–30
‘Civil Disobedience’ 427–9
Walden 418, 420, 421, 428
Thrale, Mrs Hester 168, 252, 255
Tipu Sultan 295
Toleration Act (1689) 67, 101
Toland, John 126, 353
Tolstoy, Leo xxvi, 423, 431
The Kingdom of God is Within You 431
transmigration of souls: see reincarnation
Traske, John 21
trees xviii, 43–5, 80, 86, 97, 100, 108, 143, 148, 207, 210–12, 233, 260
Triall of a Black-Pudding (Anon.) 107
tropics 208, 210, 268–70, 293, 390, 432
Tryon, Thomas 25, 60–77, 65, 78, 95, 114, 120, 146, 320, 387, 403, 417, 556n, 563n
on blood prohibition 107
Indian Brackmanny 66, 69, 127
on cause of scurvy 233
‘Complaint of the Birds’ 205
‘Complaint of the Cow and the Oxen’ 250
and Crab 61, 528n
and Evelyn 82–3, 84
Benjamin Franklin as disciple 64, 243–4, 314
Gildon on 127
influence of 64, 243–4, 249, 320, 333, 336, 338, 342, 579n
Letters from Averroes 69–70, 71, 127
on luxury 28
Memoirs 61
sympathy concept xxiii, 75–7, 285
on tropical climate 269
Way to Health, Long Life and Happiness 63, 238, 244, 249
John Williamson and 249
Tudge, Colin 412
Turgot, Anne – Robert 301
Turkish Spy 115–23, 116, 124, 126, 127, 205, 282, 285, 339, 353, 385, 392
authorship 116, 125
deism in 117, 120, 133
Tweddell, John 341
Tyson, Edward 138–41, 139, 146–7, 149, 195, 196, 228
Orang–Outang 139
Tyssot de Patot, Simon 133
Ungewitter, Richard 436, 437
United States 350, 418–19, 421
Universal Spectator 218
universal salvation 91–2, 292, 541–2nn, 586–7n
urbanisation 72–3, 86, 436
Utilitarianism xxv, 221, 280, 296, 331–2, 355–60, 382, 400–402, 413, 445
utopianism xx, xxv, 12, 7–8, 47–8, 77, 332, 337–8, 407, 410
Vaishnavism 425, 524n
Valady, Marquis de 313–30, 336, 367, 591n
Valignano, Alessandro 262, 268
Varthema, Ludovico de 124
Vaudreuil, Comte de 313, 315, 326
Vaughan, Sir William 153
veganism 61, 71, 152–3, 249, 368, 406, 427, 530n
see also milk
eggs
vegetables
abundance of, as argument against meat eating 48, 74, 87, 122, 198, 216, 264, 290, 577n
acid 228, 233–4, 238, 563n
preferred by children 148, 160, 169, 205–6, 237, 439
cooling 144, 158, 184, 241, 269–70
vegetable diet
the healthiest xxii–xxiii, 28, 35, 58, 81, 135–6, 143–5, 154, 159–60, 184, 192, 210, 229–30, 236–8, 241–2, 244, 248, 270, 297, 318, 322, 324, 334, 352, 364, 373, 384, 435
effeminacy of 160, 204, 269, 584n
enhances mental/spiritual acuity 28, 34, 57–8, 67, 75–6, 84, 99, 113–14, 122, 211, 233–4, 237, 373, 377, 421, 530n, 577n
insufficient to sustain life 20, 30–1, 47, 85–7, 237, 395, 414
softens character 57–8, 143, 169, 211, 214, 229, 270, 283, 287, 318, 320, 324, 364, 373, 379, 598n
suitable for children 143, 145, 160, 206, 208–9, 212, 214, 318–20, 334–5, 373, 379, 426
weakening effect 57, 174–5, 188, 211, 238, 261–2, 384, 425, 566n, 584nn
see also diet
medical vegetarianism
medicine
fasting
vegetable gardening 28, 79–83, 87
indigestible 580n
essential nutritional requirement xxii, 145, 231–5
nutritionally inferior 10, 32, 85, 236–8, 240
nutritious 76, 150, 158, 246, 322, 439
Vegetarian Society xvii, 324, 422–3, 425, 428–29
Vigee-Lebrun, Elisabeth 194, 207
Vital, Chaim 90
vivisection 134, 145–6, 170, 196, 252, 288, 300, 442, 555n, 566n
Volney, Constantin 321, 591n
Voltaire xxiv, 100, 277–8, 282, 287–90, 316, 377, 559n
Dictionnaire Philosophique 288
Essai sur les Moeurs 287, 288
Lettres d’Amabed à Shastasid 117, 289
The Princess of Babylon 289
Vossius, Gerard 109, 112
Wagner, Richard 443
Wakefield, Revd Gilbert 343
Waldensians 249
Wallace, Alfred Russel 416, 433, 434
Wallis, John 140, 141, 146–7, 149, 196, 228
Walpole, Robert 169
Walton, Izaak: The Compleat Angler 78
Warens, Baronne de 195, 207
Wesley, John 168, 174
West, Albert 427
Westbrook, Harriet 373, 374
Westfall, Richard S. 98, 113
Whiston, William 107–8
White, Gilbert 388
Williams, David 314, 321, 331–2, 335, 342, 382
Lectures 331, 357
Williams, Howard 215, 423
The Ethics of Diet 424, 427
Williamson, John, of Moffat 246–52, 254, 301, 365, 403, 581n
‘A Just Complaint …’ 248–9
Willis, Thomas 170, 173, 177, 184
Windham, William 343
Winstanley, Gerrard 23–4, 25, 27, 31, 64, 89
Wirz, Franz 440
witches, vegetarians accused of being 17, 35, 518n
see also devils
blasphemy
Wolcot, John, see Pindar, Peter
Wollstonecraft, Mary 324, 374, 594n
Vindication of the Rights of Woman 335
Woolf, Virginia 82
Wordsworth, William 347, 353, 358, 380, 394
The Borderers 298
The Excursion 298, 381
World War II 440–1
Wotton, William 88 Wynne-Edwards, Vero 432
Wynter, John 169
Xavier, St Francis 262
Yearsley, Ann 223
Yorke, Henry Redhead 297, 311
Young, Edward: ‘Epistle to Mr Pope’ 163
Zohar 90, 547n
zoolatry: see animal worship
zoos 81, 208
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my agent, David Godwin, for his infectious enthusiasm; and my superlatively patient editors, Arabella Pike and Kate Hyde, and also Annabel Wright and Morag Lyall. Penetrating advice on the manuscript came from a number of selfless readers to whom I am deeply indebted: Alice Albinia, Dr John Lennard, Dr Joan-Pau Rubiés, Dr Hannah Dawson, Corin Stuart, Dr Jim Watt, Steve Haskell and Daniel Wilson. Hannah Dawson, Daniel Wilson and John Lennard have been, over the years, great sources of intellectual inspiration and companionship, and Joan-Pau Rubiés kindly gave me his time and attention at the final stages. For invaluable encouragement and guidance I am also extremely grateful to Professor Nigel Leask, Dr Richard Grove, Dr Lizzie Collingham, Dr Aparna Vaidik and Dr Charlotte Grant. I have also received generous assistance from Patrick French, Dr Kate Teltscher, Dr Raj Sekhar Basu, Dr David Allan, Dr Biddan Bharan Mukerjee, Dr Dilwyn Knox and Dr Dipak Kumar. In the course of my research, the path has been illuminated by the work of Keith Thomas, Dr Timothy Morton, and Dr Anita Guerrini. A special thanks to Martin Rowlands of Milford Haven for his lifelong investigation into the history of John Zephaniah Holwell’s mansion, Castle Hall; and to Messrs Christian and Hugues de Chefdebien, relatives of the Marquis de Valady, who provided me with fascinating material including the portraits of the Marquis and his wife.
Most of the research was done in the British Library, London. Many thanks to the librarians, particularly Giles Mandelbrote and Shashi Sen; and to the wonderful staff in the Rare Books Reading Room and the Oriental and India Office Collection, who brightened my daily life; warmest thanks to Paget Anthony, Kwame Ababio, Sita Gunasingham and Cyril Ashley; and to fellow-readers. Thanks to the librarians, curators and staff at Cambridge University Library; the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris; the Library of the Asiatic Society, Kolkata; the National Library of India, Kolkata; the archives of the Royal Society of Physicians, Edinburgh; the National Library of Scotland; the Victoria and Albert Museum, particularly Rosemary Crill and Amin Jaffer; the Bodleian Library, Oxford; the Nehru Memorial Library, New Delhi; the Wren Library, Trinity College Cambridge; King’s College Library, Cambridge; the London Library; Essex Record Office; and to the compilers and editors of digital libraries, particularly Early English Books Online, Eighteenth-Century Collections Online, Literature Online and latterly, Google Books; they are facilitating a revolution in scholarship.
I have been blessed with idyllic cottages and homes in which to write: by the Goulder family at Ty Hen, by Charity Garnett at The Stone House and by Dr Rosemary Summers at No 9. Love and profound gratitude to my families, the Stuarts and the Mathers, who have helped me and put up with me; in the case of my brothers, Thomas and Corin, this has been a not inconsiderable feat. Nothing could have been done without the love of my life, my principal adviser and collaborator, the aforementioned Alice, whom the reader should thank, in any case, for making this book readable. The friendship of Charlie Layfield, James Parsons and Sangam Macduff helped to keep things in perspective. It would be incomplete if I did not also mention the natural world, and the humans within it, that drove my curiosity to understand them. Finally, to my father, who taught me how to read; I dedicate this book to him.
NOTES
INTRODUCTION
1 Mandeville (1924), I.173–81 (Remark P); ([Mandeville] (1714), Remark O, pp.146–57).
2 Passmore (1974), pp.13–14; Harrison, P. (1999); Schama (1995), pp.14, 18–19; Burkert (1983), pp.7–11, 17–22, 38; Burkert (1972), pp.180–1.
3 See especially the overviews in Mercerus (1598), pp.34–5, 195–7; Evelyn (1996), pp.80–1; Edwards (1699), I.91–9, 113–18; Almond (1999), pp.23–6, 118–22, 199; Prest (1981), pp.71–14 (the ‘Vertumnus’ poem Prest repeatedly quotes is by Abel Evans); Milton, J. (1667), X.185–9.
CHAPTER 1
1 This is John Aubrey’s version which he claims to have received from Thomas Hobbes. Jardine and Stewart (Jardine & Stewart (1998), pp.502–5) say that Bacon’s reference to his experiment on the ‘conservation and induration of bodies’ refers to living bodies which they take to be Bacon’s own body; however it could apply to dead bodies (such as the chicken) and would therefore corroborate Aubrey’s version rather than contradicting it. Jardine and Stewart suggest, rather, that the experiment in question was Bacon inhaling nitre (salt-petre) or opium to preserve his own life. They do not explain why Bacon would go to Highgate to inhale opium or nitre, whereas Highate Hill is where one would go to fetch snow in March. If Aubrey’s version is a fabrication, it is an odd coincidence that it corroborates a legitimate reading of Bacon’s private comments. It would also be odd if Bacon said that his attempt to preserve his life went ‘excellently well’ when it was followed by a coughing fit so fierce that he was forced to take refuge in Arundel’s house.
2 Bacon (1996), I.i.58; IV.247–8; Webster (1982), pp.48–9, 65–9; Webster (1975), pp.1, 4–5, 12, 15–16, 21–7 and passim; Almond (1999), p.23; Popkin (1998), p.395; Markku Peltonen, ‘Bacon, Francis, Viscount St Alban (1561–1626)’, ODNB.
3 Gruman (1966), pp.80–2.
4 Celsus (1935–8), I.43 (I.i.2); Venner (1660), p.230; Boerhaave (1742–6b), I.98–101n.6, VI.241; Boerhaave (1742–6a), I.65–7; Mead (1751), pp.207–8; Sinclair (1807), III.483; cp. Cheyne (173
3), pp.152–3, 159–60. Aubrey (1669–96); Nicholson (1999), p.87. cf. Webster (1975), pp.246–323; Shapin (2000), p.134; Shapin (1998), pp.35–6, which treats Bacon’s comments as a novel ‘twist’; Bacon was siding with Celsus as he often did; cf. Bacon (1854), III.343–71 (Aphorism 73); Celsus (1935–8), ‘Proem’.
5 See n.8 below.
6 Jardine and Stewart (1998), pp.464–5.
7 Bushell (1628), ‘Epistle Dedicatory’, pp.58–61 [mispaginated 54–5], and passim; cf. Bacon (1650), p.18ff.; [Vaughan, W.] (1633), p.62.
8 Bacon (1650), pp.7, 13–26, 32, 35–6, 40–3, 46, 51. Compare, for example, Bacon (1623), pp.103–4, 146 (where ‘solum’ is not translated). cf. Bacon (1651), p.156; Bacon (1638), p.209; Lessius, Cornaro and Anon. (1634), sig.5v; and ms. marginalia in Bacon (1638) [British Library: 535.a.6], pp.214–5.
9 Bushell (1659), ‘Letter to … Fairfax’, p.3; ‘Minerall Overtures’, pp.3–4; ‘Condemned men’, pp.2–3; ‘Fellow-Prisoners’, p.7; ‘[Bacon’s] New Atlantis’, pp.5, 29, 31–2; ‘Post-Script’, pp.4–21, espec. pp.6–8 for Bushell’s continued vegetarianism in Oxford; Bushell (1660), pp.14–18, 34–7; Bushell (1628), ‘Epistle Dedicatory’, pp.13, 20, 30, 58, 70, 74, 84, 99, 109, 111, 138; Blundell (1877), pp.34–5; Pryme (1880), vol.30, pp.8, 11–17+n.; Gough (1932), pp.4–18, 27–30, 34; Thomas, K. (1983), pp.289–90; George C. Boon, ‘Bushell, Thomas (b. before 1600, d. 1674)’, ODNB; Rostvig (1954).
10 Jerome (2005a), Bk II, ch.15, Bk I, ch.18; cf. Pseudo-Clement (2005b), Hom. viii, ch. 15–17; Boas (1948), pp.25–6, 32, 84, 114–6; Bynum (1988), pp.35, 44, 109, 320n.5.
11 Pettus (1674), pp.146–7; cit. Sherman (2002), pp.88–9.
12 John Calvin (1999), vol.I, Genesis I.xxix and 9.iii; cf. Evelyn (1996), pp.80–1; Almond (1999), pp.118, 199; Browne (1672), Bk III, ch.xxv, pp.189–94; Edwards (1699), I.91–9, 113–8.
13 Bushell (1660), ‘Post Script’, pp.20–1, 34–7; cf. Bushell (1659), ‘[Bacon’s] New Atlantis’, p.29.
14 Ovid (1632), Bk I. cp. the ‘lothsome bramble berries’ of Golding’s translation, Ovid (1567), Bk I, ll.115–21. Dryden’s later translation is still more enthusiastic than Sandys’ (Ovid (1717), p.5). However, even Golding’s translation expanded Ovid’s list of five fruits to twelve, Lyne (2001), pp.75–7. For the variant traditions of idealised and despised primitivism, cf. Boas (1948), pp.140n., 150.
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