22. Report of Visit to Crypto A.G. (Hagelin) by William F. Friedman, 21–28 February 1955, ibid., 21; Memorandum for Colonel Davis, Subject: 16 June Comments of Mr. Friedman, June 17, 1955, ibid.
23. Bamford, Puzzle Palace, 409.
24. Clark, Man Who Broke Purple, ix–x, 188–89. Clark stated that NSA officials told him such a disclosure “might deprive the NSA of the daily information enabling it to read the secret messages of other NATO countries.” Boris Hagelin’s August 7, 1956, letter to Friedman, however, alluded to a different concern: that any devices made by Hagelin for NATO not be sold to other countries.
25. Scott Shane and Tom Bowman, “Rigging the Game: Spy Sting,” Baltimore Sun, December 10, 1995.
26. Clark, Man Who Broke Purple, 186–87, 199–200.
27. Ibid., 201.
28. “PiggyBack Satellites Hailed as Big Space Gain for U.S.,” Washington Post, June 23, 1960.
29. Manchester, Glory and Dream, 788–89, 792–93.
30. McDonald and Moreno, Grab and Poppy, 2–3; “GRAB: World’s First Reconnaissance Satellite,” Naval Research Laboratory, Web.
31. McDonald and Moreno, Grab and Poppy, 9.
32. Samos Special Satellite Reconnaissance System, Document 628, WS117L, SAMOS, and SENTRY Records, National Reconnaissance Office Declassified Records, Web.
33. Ibid.; AC, II:404; Bernard, ELINT at NSA, 2–7.
34. AC, II:403–5.
35. Ibid.; Day, “Ferrets Above,” 451–52.
36. AC, II:338–41; Kirby, OH, 61; Campaigne, OH, 125–26; Day, “Ferrets Above,” 452.
37. O’Hara, “Telemetry Signals.”
38. AC, II:343–44, 409–10.
39. Wagoner, Space Surveillance, 3–6, 19, 32–33; Matthew Aid, “Listening to the Soviets in Space,” March 10, 2013, Web.
40. CW, 76.
41. Taubman, Khrushchev, 537; “U.S. and Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces,” Natural Resources Defense Council, Web; Blight, Allyn, and Welch, Cuba on the Brink, 130, 135–36.
42. Taubman, Khrushchev, 537, 541.
43. Blight, Allyn, and Welch, Cuba on the Brink, 84–86; Blight and Welch, On the Brink, 291.
44. Hatch, “Juanita Moody”; Budiansky, Battle of Wits, 311–12.
45. Johnson and Hatch, NSA and Cuban Crisis, 3; Spanish-Speaking Pilots Training at Trencin Airfield, Czechoslovakia, June 19, 1961, Cuban Missile Crisis Documents, NSAD.
46. AC, II:318–19; Wigglesworth, “Cuban Crisis SIGINT,” 79, 83.
47. Operators’ Chatter Reveals Cuban Air Force Personnel to Learn Russian, May 23, 1961, Cuban Missile Crisis Documents, NSAD.
48. AC, II:315–16, 320–22; Wigglesworth, “Cuban Crisis SIGINT,” 79.
49. First ELINT Evidence of Scan Odd Radar in Cuban Area, June 6, 1962, and Unusual Number of Soviet Passenger Ships En Route to Cuba, July 24, 1962, Cuban Missile Crisis Documents, NSAD.
50. Johnson and Hatch, NSA and Cuban Crisis, 4–5; New Radar Deployment in Cuba, September 19, 1962, Cuban Missile Crisis Documents, NSAD.
51. AC, II:327; Johnson and Hatch, NSA and Cuban Crisis, 6–9.
52. AC, II:325–26.
53. Ibid., II:329.
54. Ibid.
55. Blight, Allyn, and Welch, Cuba on the Brink, 163; Taubman, Khrushchev, 567–70; Manchester, Glory and Dream, 971.
56. Taubman, Khrushchev, 573–75.
57. Alvarez, “Cuban Crisis,” 176n10; AC, II:317.
58. AC, I:253–56, II:366, 374; Klein, TSEC/KW-26, 10–11.
59. Gallo, “NSA Signal Collection,” 54–55; AC, II:350, 362, 368–73.
60. AC, II:347–49; Johnson, “War’s Aftermath”; Comments on the National SIGINT Program, May 20, 1965, President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 1958–1965, Baker, Papers, 1.
61. AC, II:332, 352–53; Interview with Admiral Bobby Inman, March 12, 2015.
9 REINVENTING THE WHEEL
1. AC, II:353, 356; Desmond Morton to C, September 27, 1940, HW 1/1, TNA.
2. Manchester, Glory and Dream, 1012.
3. Ibid., 1040; Memorandum from the Secretary of Defense to the President, March 16, 1964, Document 84, FRUS, Vietnam, 1964; CW, 168–69.
4. Sheehan, Bright Shining Lie, 136–37; Halberstam, Best and Brightest, 149–50.
5. Sheehan, Bright Shining Lie, 122–24, 289–90.
6. Hanyok, “Skunks, Bogies,” 4–7.
7. Ibid., 12; Moïse, Tonkin Gulf, 60; Zaslow, OH, 33–34.
8. 2/G11/VHN/R01-64, August 1, 1964, From Phu Bai, SIGINT Reports and Translations, Gulf of Tonkin Release, NSAD.
9. 2/Q/VHN/R26-64, August 1, 1965, From San Miguel, Philippines, SIGINT Reports and Translations, Gulf of Tonkin Release, NSAD.
10. Hanyok, “Skunks, Bogies,” 13–17.
11. Ibid., 15, 18; Aid, Secret Sentry, 88–89.
12. On Watch, 46–49; Hanyok, “Skunks, Bogies,” 23–24.
13. Hanyok, “Skunks, Bogies,” 22, 25; AC, II:523; On Watch, 50.
14. Moïse, Tonkin Gulf, 197.
15. Hanyok, “Skunks, Bogies,” 26–27, 38.
16. Ibid., 26–36.
17. Ibid., 2–4, 40–44.
18. Scott Shane, “Vietnam Study, Casting Doubts, Remains Secret,” NYT, October 31, 2005.
19. AC, II:503.
20. Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 125–29; AC, II:504.
21. Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 129–31.
22. Ibid., 134–36.
23. AC, II:543, 547.
24. Ibid., II:502, 506, 534.
25. Ibid., II:511; Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 146–49.
26. AC, II:551, 553; PURPLE DRAGON, 10.
27. Maneki, “Lessons of Vietnam,” 19, 31; AC, II:551–55.
28. AC, II:380, 551–55; Maneki, “Lessons of Vietnam,” 34–35.
29. Budiansky, Air Power, 384; AC, II:538.
30. AC, II:545–55; Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 235–37.
31. AC, II:549, 580–81; “TEABALL,” 93–95.
32. Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 149–50, 307; AC, II:561.
33. AC, II:561–62; Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 327.
34. Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 344–45.
35. AC, II:563–64.
36. Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 344–45.
37. Ibid., 325, 337–39.
38. Ibid., 309, 339, 348; Manchester, Glory and Dream, 1053, 1125–26.
39. Hanyok, Spartans in Darkness, 444–45; AC, III:10, 12.
40. Newton, Pueblo and SIGINT, 9–11, 42, 46–47.
41. Ibid., 18–20.
42. Ibid., 21, 31, 49.
43. Ibid., 26–27, 29–31.
44. Ibid., 48–52.
45. Ibid., 54–61.
46. Ibid., 55, 61.
47. Ibid., 63–65, 155.
48. Ibid., 114, 126, 132–34.
49. Ibid., 160–63; Memorandum for USIB Principals, Assessment of the Loss of the USS PUEBLO, May 13, 1968, USS Pueblo Release, NSAD.
50. Louis Tordella, Report on the Assessment of Cryptographic Damage Resulting from the Loss of the USS PUEBLO (AGER-2), July 28, 1969, USS Pueblo Release, NSAD; Heath, Security Weaknesses, 54–58.
51. Newton, Pueblo and SIGINT, 11; W. O. Baker, Memorandum to Honorable Clark Clifford, January 26, 1968, President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 1959–1970, Baker, Papers, 3.
52. Newton, Pueblo and SIGINT, 165, 174–75.
53. Howe, “Civilians in Field Operations,” 5–6; AC, II:393.
54. “Civilianization of Harrogate,” 10–11.
55. Ibid., 12–13.
56. AC, II:297, III:22, 209.
57. Ibid., II:382–88, 391–93.
10 BRUTE FORCE AND LEGERDEMAIN
1. Aid, Secret Sentry, 128; AC, II:293, III:21; Aid, “Time of Troubles,” 7.
2. “2,000-Year-Old Transcriber,” 17–18. A complete (though highly redacted) series of Cryptologs is at NSAD.
3. Exinterne, “Intern Program,” 16, 18; Exinterne, “Intern Program, Part Three,” 17.
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4. Buffham, OH, 20; interview with Thomas R. Johnson, June 13, 2015; interview with Robert L. Benson, April 12, 2015.
5. Interview with Thomas R. Johnson, June 13, 2015.
6. Comments on the National SIGINT Program, May 20, 1965, President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 1958–1965, Baker, Papers, 8; AC, III:192.
7. AC, II:478; Comments on the National SIGINT Program, May 20, 1965, President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, 1958–1965, Baker, Papers, 4–5.
8. Garthoff, Directors of Central Intelligence, 35–36.
9. Memorandum for Assistant Comptroller, Requirements and Evaluation, The CIA/NSA Relationship, August 20, 1976, DNSArch.
10. Turner, Secrecy and Democracy, 235.
11. AC, II:357, 485; Hersh, Price of Power, 207.
12. AC, III:87–88; U.S. Senate, Huston Plan, 6–7; U.S. Senate, National Security Agency, 26–27.
13. Hersh, Price of Power, 207–8.
14. AC, II:487.
15. CW, 177.
16. Ibid., 157, 177–78; AC, III:91; Seymour M. Hersh, “Huge CIA Operation Reported in U.S. Against Antiwar Forces, Other Dissidents in Nixon Years,” NYT, December 22, 1974.
17. Snider, “Church Committee’s Investigation.”
18. Ibid.; AC, III:99, 106.
19. AC, III:84–85; U.S. Senate, Supplementary Staff Reports, 779–80.
20. AC, III:85; Snider, “Church Committee’s Investigation”; Summary of Task Force Report on Inquiry into CIA-Related Electronic Surveillance Activities Disclosed in Rockefeller Commission Report, Draft, March 4, 1977, posted in James Bamford, “The NSA and Me,” Intercept, October 2, 2014, Web.
21. Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, Public Law 95-111.
22. Memorandum from the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Ford, Document 175, FRUS, National Security Policy, 1973–1976; National Security Decision Memorandum 266, August 15, 1974, Document 176, ibid., n2.
23. Memorandum from the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Ford, Document 175, ibid.; Ball, Soviet SIGINT, 45–51; Andrew and Mitrokhin, Sword and Shield, 348.
24. Memorandum from the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Scowcroft) and the President’s Assistant for Domestic Affairs and Director of the Domestic Council (Cannon) to President Ford, January 6, 1977, Document 181, FRUS, National Security Policy, 1973–1976.
25. Memorandum for Brent Scowcroft, Soviet Microwave Interception Program, National Security Council, April 5, 1976, NSA60; Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive, Unauthorized Disclosure of Classified Information, September 11, 2011, National Security Archive, CIA and Signals Intelligence.
26. McConnell quoted in Aid, Secret Sentry, 152; Kahn, “Big Ear.”
27. Interview with Admiral Bobby Inman, March 12, 2015.
28. Memorandum for Assistant Comptroller, Requirements and Evaluation, The CIA/NSA Relationship, August 20, 1976, DNSArch.
29. AC, III:224–31; interview with Admiral Bobby Inman, March 12, 2015.
30. Andrew and Mitrokhin, Sword and Shield, 350–51; “KGB Defector Tells of Soviet Bugging Operations in U.S.,” Washington Post, September 14, 1999.
31. Maneki, GUNMAN Project, 8–9, 13–14, 17–18, 23.
32. Andrew and Mitrokhin, Sword and Shield, 348.
33. W. F. Clarke, PostWar Organisation of G.C. and C.S., April 1, 1945, HW 3/30, TNA.
34. AC, III:189–90.
35. Ibid., III:191; Hayden, “Interview”; Interview with Admiral Bobby Inman, March 12, 2015.
36. Interview with Admiral Bobby Inman, March 12, 2015; Bissell, NSA Cryptanalytic Efforts, 13–16.
37. AC, III:218.
38. WM, 309, 322–23n125.
39. Campaigne, OH, 69; AC, III:218.
40. Johnson, “Human Side.”
41. AC, III:192, 208–10, 221–23.
42. Aid, Secret Sentry, 155–56.
43. AC, IV:409.
44. Ibid., IV:410–13; Aid, Secret Sentry, 184–85.
45. AC, IV:415–16.
46. Ibid., IV:417–22; Hunter, Spy Hunter, 85; Melton, Spy Book, 54.
47. Hunter, Spy Hunter, 184, 195–97.
EPILOGUE: THE COLLAPSE OF THE WALL, AND A VERDICT
1. CW, 245–46.
2. Aid, Secret Sentry, 175–77, 236–41.
3. CW, 165.
APPENDIX A: ENCIPHERED CODES, DEPTHS, AND BOOK BREAKING
1. Haynes and Klehr, Venona, 27, 397n7.
2. HV, 73.
APPENDIX B: RUSSIAN TELEPRINTER CIPHERS
1. TICOM DF-98, Russian Baudot Teletype Scrambler, September 20, 1943, TArch.
2. TICOM I-169, Report by Uffz. Karrenberg on the Bandwurm, December 2, 1945, TArch.
3. For a technical description of GC&CS’s cryptanalysis of the German teleprinter ciphers, see Budiansky, “Colossus, Codebreaking.”
APPENDIX C: CRYPTANALYSIS OF THE HAGELIN MACHINE
1. Solution of a Three Deep Hagelin, June 7, 1944, NR 2340, HCR.
2. An Insecure Use of the Hagelin Cryptograph Leading to the Discovery of Messages in Depth and the Reconstruction of Base Settings, November 20, 1944, NR 2818, HCR. Churchhouse, Codes and Ciphers, 133–52, has a good explanation of the process for recovering the pinwheel settings from a sequence of known key.
APPENDIX D: BAYESIAN PROBABILITY, TURING, AND THE DECIBAN
1. Good, “Enigma and Fish,” 157.
2. A. M. Turing, Paper on Statistics of Repetitions, ca. 1941, HW 25/38, TNA; Good, “Turing’s Statistical Work”; Copeland, “Turingery,” 380.
3. Copeland, “Turingery,” 380; Lobban, “Turing’s Legacy.”
APPENDIX E: THE INDEX OF COINCIDENCE
1. Friedman, Index of Coincidence.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARCHIVAL SOURCES AND DOCUMENT COLLECTIONS
Central Intelligence Agency Library. Web. (CIAL)
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Abelson, Harold, et al. Keys Under Doormats: Mandating Insecurity by Requiring Government Access to All Data and Communications. Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Technical Report, MIT-CSAIL-TR-2015-026. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2015.
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———. “American Comint in the Korean War (Part II): From the Chinese Intervention to the Armistice.” Intelligence and National Security 15, no. 1 (2000): 14–49.
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———. The Secret Sentry: The Untold Story of the National Security Agency. New York: Bloomsbury, 2009.
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