by Peter Watson
4 Armstrong, Op. cit., pp. xiii-xiv.
5 Ibid.
6 Ibid, pp. 3–4.
7 Ibid, pp. 5–7.
8 Ibid, pp. 8–10.
9 Ibid, p. 11.
10 Edward Bryant, The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
11 Armstrong, Op. cit., pp. 24–25.
12 Ibid, p. 79.
13 Ibid, p. 84.
14 Paul Dundas, The Jains, London and New York: Routledge, 2002, p. 17.
15 Patrick Olivelle, Upanihads, Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. xxxiv-xxxv.
16 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 133.
17 Ibid, pp. 196–199.
18 Ibid, p. 234.
19 Ibid, p. 239.
20 Ibid, p. 274.
21 Joseph Campbell, The Masks of God, Oriental Mythology, London: Penguin Books, 1991, p. 236.
22 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 284.
23 Edward Conze, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951, p. 125.
24 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 361.
25 Ibid, p. 366.
26 Jacques Gernet, Ancient China: From the beginning to the Empire, trs. Raymond Rudorff, London: Faber, 1968,pp. 37–65.
27 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 35.
28 Ibid, p. 73.
29 Ibid, pp. 77 and 114.
30 Ibid, p. 119.
31 Ibid, p. 154.
32 Ibid.
33 Gernet, Op. cit., pp. 83–84.
34 A.C. Graham, Disputers of the Tao: Philosophical Arguments in Ancient China, La Salle, Illinois: Illinois University Press, 1989,pp. 9ff.
35 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 205.
36 Ibid, pp. 207–211.
37 Sima Qian, Records of the Grand Historian 124, in Fung Yu-Lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, ed. and trs. Derk Bodde, New York, 1976, p. 50.
38 Armstrong, Op. cit., pp. 272–274.
39 Ibid, p. 292.
40 Graham, Op. cit., pp. 111–130.
41 Mencius 7A 1, taken from D.C. Lau, trs., Mencius, Hong Kong: Chinese University Press, 1970.
42 Armstrong, Op. cit., pp. 340–347.
43 Ibid, p. 372.
44 Ibid, p. 43.
45 Ibid, p. 63.
46 S. David Sperling, ‘Israel’s religion in the Near East’, in Arthur Green (editor), Jewish Spirituality, 2 vols, London and New York, The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1986, 1988, Vol. 1,pp. 27–28.
47 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 80.
48 Ibid, p. 93.
49 Ibid, p. 94.
50 Ibid, p. 99.
51 R.E. Clements, God and Temple, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1965,pp. 90–95.
52 Ezekiel 2:12–15.
53 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 182.
54 Ibid, p. 382.
55 Guy G. Stroumsa, trs. Susan Emanuel, The End of Sacrifice: Religious Transformation in Late Antiquity, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009, p. 5.
56 Polyminia Athanassiadi and Michael Frede, Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity, Oxford: Oxford University Press/Clarendon Press, 1999.
57 Athanassiadi and Frede, Op. cit., pp. 8–9.
58 Ibid, pp. 17–20.
59 Ibid, pp. 24–25.
60 Ibid, pp. 31–38.
61 Ibid, pp. 41–43.
62 Ibid, p. 55.
63 Ibid, pp. 69–70.
64 Ibid, p. 110.
65 Daniel Hillel, The Natural History of the Bible: An Environmental Exploration of the Hebrew Scriptures, New York: Columbia University Press, 2006,pp. 16– 18.
66 Hillel, Op. cit., pp. 56–62.
67 Ibid, p. 67.
68 Ibid, pp. 244–245.
69 Ibid, pp. 103–104.
70 Ibid, p. 133.
71 Ibid, pp. 173–179.
72 Ibid, pp. 181 and 208.
73 Stroumsa, Op. cit., p. 71.
74 Bremner, Op. cit., p. 252, note 63.
75 Walter Burkert, The Orientalizing Revolution: Near Eastern Influences on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age, trs. Margaret E. Pindar, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992,pp. 73–75.
76 Stroumsa, Op. cit., p. 33. Miranada Aldhouse Green, Dying for the Gods: Human Sacrifice in Iron Age and Roman Europe, Stroud: Tempus, 2001, p. 31.
77 Ibid, pp. 57–60.
78 Ingvild Saelid Gilhus, Animals, Gods and Humans: changing attitudes to animals in Greek, Roman and early Christian ideas, London: Routledge, 2006, p. 2.
79 Gilhus, Op. cit., p. 152.
80 Ibid, pp. 38–40.
81 Ibid, p. 61.
82 Ibid, pp. 97–98.
83 Ibid, p. 126.
84 Ibid, pp. 144–148. Caroline Grigson and Juliet Clutton-Brock, Animals and Archaeology, volume 4, Husbandry in Europe, Oxford: BAR International Series, 202, 1984, p. 186.
85 Ibid, p. 171.
86 Ibid, pp. 263–267.
87 Stroumsa, Op. cit., pp. 67–69.
88 Ibid, p. 30.
89 Ibid, p. 39.
90 Ibid, pp. 53–54.
91 René Girard, Violence and the Sacred, trs. Patrick Gregory, Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977. Quoted in Stroumsa, Op. cit., p. 81.
92 Stroumsa, Op. cit., p. 91.
93 Ibid, pp. 101–102.
94 Ibid, p. 124.
CHAPTER 19: THE INVENTION OF DEMOCRACY, THE ALPHABET, MONEY AND THE CONCEPT OF NATURE
1 Karen Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 168.
2 Ibid, p. 169.
3 Ibid, p. 144.
4 Ibid, p. 139.
5 Ibid, p. 145.
6 Walter Burkert, Greek Religion, trs. John Raffar, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983,pp. 44–49.
7 Oswyn Murray, Early Greece, Brighton: Harvester Press 1990 (reprint 1999), pp. 173–185.
8 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 184.
9 Ibid, p. 183.
10 Ibid, p. 223.
11 Ibid, p. 224.
12 Murray, Op. cit., pp. 236–246.
13 John Keane, The Life and Death of Democracy, London: Simon & Schuster, 2009, p. 10.
14 Keane, Op. cit., pp. 15–18.
15 Ibid, pp. 45–50.
16 Ibid, p. 52.
17 Ibid, p. 60.
18 Leonard Shlain, The Alphabet and the Goddess, London: Penguin, 1998, p. 65.
19 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 226.
20 Shlain, Op. cit., p. 66.
21 Ibid, p. 68.
22 Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book: The Structure of Human History, London: Collins Harvill, 1988, p. 72.
23 Gellner, Op. cit., p. 77.
24 Diamond, Guns, Germs and Steel, Op. cit., p. 231.
25 Shlain, Op. cit., p. 70.
26 Robert K. Logan, The Alphabet Effect, Boston: William Morrow, 1986, pp. 34–35.
27 Logan, Op. cit., p. 40.
28 Ibid, p. 97.
29 Ibid, pp. 104 and 114–115.
30 Tim Ingold, The Perception of the Environment: Essays in livelihood, dwelling and skill, London: Routledge, 2000, chapter 4, ‘From trust to domination: an alternative history of human-animal relations’, pp. 61–76.
31 Erwin Schrödinger, Nature and the Greeks and Science and Humanism, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1954/1996,pp. 55–58.
32 Geoffrey Lloyd and Nathan Sivin, The Way and the Word: Science and Medicine in Early China and Greece, New Haven, CT and London: Yale University Press, 2002,pp. 242–248.
33 Greene, Op. cit., pp. 78ff.
34 Gerard Naddaf, The Greek Concept of Nature, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2005, p. 15.
35 H.D.F. Kitto, The Greeks, London: Penguin, 1961, p. 177.
36 A.R. Burn, The Penguin History of Greece, London: Penguin, 1966, p. 131.
37 Ibid, p. 138.
38 David C. Lindberg, The Beginnings of Western Science, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992, p. 34.
39 Burn, Op. cit., p. 248.
40 Lindberg, Op. cit., p. 31.
41 E.R. Dodds, The Gr
eeks and the Irrational, Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1951.
42 Lloyd and Sivin, Op. cit., p. 241.
43 Michael Grant, The Classical Greeks, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1989, p. 70.
44 Ibid, p. 72.
45 Armstrong, Op. cit., p. 108.
46 Jack Weatherford, The History of Money, New York: Three Rivers Press (Crown), 1997, p. 27.
47 Ibid, p. 30.
48 Ibid, pp. 34–35.
CHAPTER 20: SHAMAN-KINGS, WORLD TREES AND VISION SERPENTS
1 Lido Valdez, ‘Walled settlements, Buffer Zones and Human decapitation in the Acari Valley, Peru’, Journal of Anthropological Research, Vol. 65,No. 3, 1969, pp. 386–416.
2 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 188.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid, p. 189.
5 Helaine Silverman and Donald A. Proulx, The Nasca (Peoples of America), London and New York: Blackwell-Wiley, 2002.
6 Andy Coghlan, ‘Chop-happy Nazca learned hard lesson’, New Scientist, 17 November 2009, p. 16.
7 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 189.
8 Ibid, p. 192.
9 Ibid.
10 Ibid, p. 194.
11 Ibid, p. 172.
12 Ibid, p. 173.
13 Steve Bourget and Kimerly L. Jones, The Art and Archaeology of the Moche: An ancient Andean Society of the Peruvian North Coast, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2008,pp. 202–203.
14 Bourget and Jones, Op. cit., p. 56.
15 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 180.
16 Bourget and Jones, Op. cit., p. 35; Fagan, Op. cit., p. 196.
17 Bourget and Jones, Op. cit., p. 260.
18 Moseley et al., Op. cit., p. 89.
19 Bourget and Jones, Op. cit., p. 210.
20 Linda Schele and David Freidel, A Forest of Kings: The Untold Story of the Ancient Maya, New York: Quil/William Morrow, 1990, p. 112.
21 Schele and Freidel, Op. cit., pp. 46 and 61. Roderick J. McIntosh et al. (editors), The Way the Wind Blows: Climate, History and Human Action,New York: Columbia University Press, 2000, p. 244.
22 David Freidel, Linda Schele and Joy Parker, Maya Cosmos: Three Thousand Years on the Shaman’s Path, New York: Quil/William Morrow, 1993, pp. 81– 95. See also: Anthony Aveni, People and the Sky, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 2008, p. 49.
23 Schele and Freidel, Op. cit., p. 117.
24 Ibid, p. 207.
25 Aveni, Op. cit., p. 208.
26 Peter S. Rudman, How Mathematics Happened: The First 5,000 Years, Amherst, MA: Prometheus, 2007,pp. 129–130.
27 Schele and Freidel, Op. cit., p. 87; Roderick J. McIntosh et al. (editors), Op. cit., pp. 275–277.
28 Ibid, p. 121.
29 Ibid, pp. 85 and 380.
30 Ibid, pp. 123–126.
31 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 126.
32 DOI: 10.1016/j/jas.2009.01.020.
33 Freidel, Schele and Parker, Op. cit., pp. 123 and 131.
34 Ibid, p. 145.
35 Kent Flannery and Joyce Marcus (editors), The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, New York and London: Academic Press, 1983,pp. 218, 340, 357–359.
36 Flannery and Marcus (editors), Op. cit., pp. 38–39.
37 Ibid, pp. 347–350.
38 Arthur Joyce and Marcus Winter, ‘Agency, Ideology and Power in Oaxaca’, Current Anthropology, Vol. 37,No. 1, February 1996,pp. 33–47.
39 Flannery and Marcus (editors), Op. cit., p. 152.
40 Aveni, Op. cit., p. 134.
41 Ibid, p. 136.
42 Ibid, p. 153.
43 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 195; Roderick J. McIntosh et al. (editors), Op. cit., p. 273.
44 Jake Page, In the Hands of the Great Spirit: the 20,000-year history of the American Indians, New York: Free Press, 2003, p. 2.
45 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., p. 203.
46 Ibid, pp. 204–205.
47 Fagan, From Black Lands to Fifth Sun, Op. cit., pp. 169 and 215. William E. Doolittle, Cultivated Landscapes of Native North America, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001,pp. 39, 194 and 254.
48 Fagan, Kingdoms of Gold, Op. cit., pp. 204–211.
49 Ibid, p. 209.
50 Ibid.
51 Ibid, p. 212.
52 Ibid, p. 213.
53 Ibid, pp. 213–214.
54 Ibid, p. 216.
55 Ibid.
56 Ibid, p. 217.
57 Ibid, p. 220.
CHAPTER 21: BLOODLETTING, HUMAN SACRIFICE, PAIN AND POTLATCH
1 Linda Schele and Mary Ellen Miller, The Blood of Kings: dynasty and ritual in Mayan art, Fort Worth,TX: Kimbell Art Museum, 1986, p. 42.
2 Maria Longhena, Maya Script, trs. Rosanna M. Giammanco Frongia, New York: Abbeville, 2000, p. 65.
3 Schele and Miller, Op. cit., p. 45.
4 Ibid, p. 175.
5 Ibid, p. 177.
6 Ibid, p. 178.
7 Ibid, p. 179.
8 Ibid, p. 180.
9 Ibid, p. 193.
10 Ibid, p. 210.
11 Ibid, p. 214.
12 Ibid, p. 216.
13 Ibid, pp. 215–218.
14 Ibid, p. 241.
15 E. Michael Whittington, The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame, London and New York: Thames & Hudson, 2001,pp. 71–75.
16 Whittington, Op. cit., p. 39.
17 Ibid, p. 81. See also: Schele and Miller, Op. cit., p. 243.
18 Whittington, Op. cit., p. 21.
19 Ibid.
20 Ibid, p. 120.
21 Ibid, p. 29.
22 Ibid, p. 30.
23 Schele and Miller, Op. cit., p. 243.
24 Whittington, Op. cit., p. 76.
25 Schele and Miller, Op. cit., p. 245.
26 Ibid, p. 248.
27 Ibid, p. 249.
28 Whittington, Op. cit., pp. 42–48.
29 Ibid, pp. 55–63.
30 Ibid, p. 110.
31 Elizabeth Benson and Anita G. Cook (editors), Ritual Sacrifice in Ancient Peru, Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2001, p. 183.
32 Heather Orr and Rex Koontz (editors), Blood and Beauty: Organized Violence in the Art and Archaeology of Mesoamerica and Central America, Los Angeles: The Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA, 2009, p. 128.
33 Benson and Cook (editors), Op. cit., pp. 12–13.
34 Orr and Koontz (editors), Op. cit., p. 115.
35 Ibid, p. 297.
36 Ibid, p. 305.
37 Ibid.
38 Orr and Koontz, Op. cit., pp. 47 and 53.
39 Benson and Cook (editors), Op. cit., pp. 8 and 41.
40 Orr and Koontz (editors), Op. cit., p. 287.
41 Ibid, p. 258.
42 Ibid, p. 243.
43 Aveni, Op. cit., p. 169.
44 Aveni, Op. cit., p. 136.
45 Longhena, Op. cit., pp. 23–24.
46 Joyce Marcus, Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth and History in Four Ancient Civilizations, Princeton, NJ and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1992.
47 Marcus, Op. cit., p. 435.
48 Ibid, p. 7.
49 Ibid, p. 441.
50 Fagan, From Black Lands to Fifth Sun, Op. cit., p. 293.
51 William C. Sturtevant (general editor), Wayne Suttle, volume editor, Handbook of North American Indians: Volume 7, Northwest Coast, Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990, p. 84.
52 Aveni, Op. cit., p. 223.
53 Handbook of North American Indians, Op. cit., p. 85.
54 Marcel Mauss, The Gift: forms and functions of exchange in archaic societies, trs. Ian Cunninson, London: Coehn & West, 1954.
55 Handbook of North American Indians, Op. cit., pp. 85–86.
CHAPTER 22: MONASTERIES AND MANDARINS, MUSLIMS AND MONGOLS
1 Rodney Stark, The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism and Western Success, New York: Random House, 2005, p. 5.
2 Gellner, Plough, Swor
d and Book, Op. cit., p. 89.
3 Stark, Op. cit., pp. 6–7.
4 Ibid, p. 9.
5 Gellner, Op. cit., p. 84.
6 Stark, Op. cit., p. 11.
7 Ibid, pp. 15–17. But see: Charles Freeman’s untitled and undated review of Stark’s book on Amazon.com. And also: Mott T. Greene, Natural Knowledge in Pre-classical antiquity, Op. cit., p. 143.
8 Stark, Op. cit., p. 17.
9 Ibid, p. 22.
10 Ibid, pp. 28–29.
11 Ibid, p. 59.
12 Ibid, p. 64.
13 Freeman, Op. cit.
14 Stark, Op. cit., p. 81.
15 Ibid, pp. 83–84.
16 Anthony Pagden (editor), The Idea of Europe, Cambridge, UK and Washington DC: Cambridge University Press/Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 2002, p. 81.
17 R.W. Southern, Scholastic Humanism and the Unification of Europe, Vol. 1, Foundations, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1995, p. 1.
18 Ibid, p. 5.
19 Herbert Musurillo SJ, Symbolism and the Christian Imagination, Dublin: Helicon, 1962, p. 152.
20 Southern, Op. cit., p. 22.
21 Ibid, p. 64.
22 Stark, Op. cit., p. 82.
23 Ibid, p. 113.
24 Ibid, pp. 35–39.
25 Ibid, p. 41.
26 Douglas North and Robert Thomas, The Rise of the Western World, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1953, p. 33.
27 North and Thomas, Op. cit., p. 43.
28 Carlo M. Cipolla, Before the Industrial Revolution: European Society and Economy, 1000–1700, London and New York: Routledge, 2003, p. 141.
29 D.A. Callus (editor), Robert Grosseteste, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955, p. 98.
30 Robert Pasnau, Aquinas on Human Nature, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
31 Robert Benson and Giles Constable, Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982, p. 45.
32 Stark, Op. cit., pp. 106ff.
33 Janet Abu-Lughod, Before European Hegemony: The World System AD 1250– 1350, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1989,pp. 3–4.
34 Abu-Lughod, Op. cit., pp. 16–17. On the Arabic/Islamic spread, see: Peter Bellwood, First Farmers, Op. cit., p. 192.
35 Ibid, p. 155.
36 Ibid, p. 158.
37 Ibid, p. 170.
38 William McNeill, Plagues and People, Oxford: Blackwell, 1977, p. 19.
39 Norman Cantor, In the Wake of the Plague: The Black Death and the World It Made, London: Simon & Schuster, 2001, p. 191.
40 Abu-Lughod, Op. cit., p. 174.
41 Ibid, p. 237. Terence Ranger and Paul Slack (eds.), Epidemics and Ideas: Essays in the Historical Perception of Pestilence, Cambridge UK: Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 83.
