PUSHOUT
Also by Monique W. Morris
Black Stats: African Americans by the Numbers in the Twenty-First Century
Too Beautiful for Words: A Novel
© 2016 by Monique W. Morris
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Published in the United States by The New Press, New York, 2015
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For Black girls
CONTENTS
Introduction
1.Struggling to Survive
2.A Blues for Black Girls When the “Attitude” Is Enuf
3.Jezebel in the Classroom
4.Learning on Lockdown
5.Repairing Relationships, Rebuilding Connections
Epilogue
Appendix A: Girls, We Got You!
A Q&A for Girls, Parents, Community Members, and Educators
Resources for African American Girls
Appendix B: Alternatives to Punishment
Methodology
Acknowledgments
Notes
INTRODUCTION
Call my mama!”
This was the cry of fourteen-year-old Dejerria Becton, who in the summer of 2015 was thrown to the ground as well as physically and verbally assaulted by Corporal Eric Casebolt after she refused to leave her friends at the mercy of this law enforcement officer in McKinney, Texas. A video, which later went viral, showed Casebolt pushing Dejerria’s face into the ground as she—a slight-framed, barefoot, bikini-clad teenager who presented no physical threat or danger—screamed for someone to call her mother for help. The video showed Casebolt grinding his knee into her bare skin and restraining her by placing the full weight of his body onto hers.
The incident was violent and reeked of sexual assault—overtones that were later deemed inappropriate, “out of control,” and inconsistent with the police department’s policies, training, and articulated practices.1 Though Casebolt resigned in response to the public outcry and internal scrutiny associated with his actions, the image of her helpless, frightened body under his has become one of the snapshots that call our public consciousness to examine the overzealous policing and criminalization of Black youth. Though media and advocacy efforts have largely focused on the extreme and intolerable abuse cases involving Black boys, such as seventeen-year-old Trayvon Martin in Florida or twelve-year-old Tamir Rice in Ohio, a growing number of cases involving Black girls have surfaced to reveal what many of us have known for centuries: Black girls are also directly impacted by criminalizing policies and practices that render them vulnerable to abuse, exploitation, dehumanization, and, under the worst circumstances, death. For example, eighteen-year-old Sheneque Proctor died in police custody after she was arrested for disorderly conduct in Bessemer, Alabama.2 Even in high-profile cases involving boys, we often fail to see the girls who were right there alongside them. After the fatal shooting of Tamir Rice, the officers tackled his fourteen-year-old sister to the ground and handcuffed her. Not only had she just watched her little brother die at the hands of these officers, but she was forced to grieve his death from the backseat of a police car.3
Addressing these problematic narratives has proved difficult in the current social and political climate, one that embraces punitive responses to expressions of dissent and increases the surveillance of the homes where our families live, the communities where our children play, and the schools where our children are educated.
The result has been an increasing number of girls in contact with the criminal and juvenile justice systems. Since 1992, girls’ share of delinquency cases resulting in detention (the most common form of confinement for girls) has increased, often for charges such as prostitution, simple assault, or status offenses.* For a host of reasons—paternalistic juvenile courts and a lack of community-based, culturally competent, and gender-responsive services among them—diversion away from these systems has been underutilized with girls. These are mostly girls of color (a disproportionately high percentage of girls are Black and/or Latina), and many of them (by some estimates 40 percent) identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning (LGBTQ), or gender-nonconforming.4
Status offenses refer to those that are only a violation because the person is underage, such as truancy, curfew violations, or running away from home.
One of the most persistent and salient traits among girls who have been labeled “delinquent” is that they have failed to establish a meaningful and sustainable connection with schools. This missing link is exacerbated by the increased reliance of public schools on exclusionary discipline, at present one of the most widely used measures to deal with problematic student behaviors. Indeed, nearly 48 percent of Black girls who are expelled nationwide do not have access to educational services.5 Black girls are 16 percent of the female student population, but nearly one-third of all girls referred to law enforcement and more than one-third of all female school-based arrests.6
The criminalization of Black girls is much more than a street phenomenon. It has extended into our schools, disrupting one of the most important protective factors in a girl’s life: her education.
In May 2013, Ashlynn Avery, a sixteen-year-old diabetic girl in Alabama, fell asleep while reading Huckleberry Finn during her in-school suspension. When she did not respond, the suspension supervisor allegedly threw a book at her and ordered her to leave the classroom. As she was leaving the room, a police officer allegedly slammed her face into a file cabinet and then arrested her.7 In April 2013, sixteen-year-old Kiera Wilmot was charged with a felony offense when what she said was a science experiment went wrong, leaving her subjected to a mandatory suspension and arrest following an unauthorized “explosion” on school grounds.8 The charges were later dropped after significant public objection and petitioning by advocacy groups; however, after the incident, Wilmot has feared being labeled a “terrorist.”9 In 2008, Marché Taylor was arrested in Texas after she resisted being barred from prom for wearing a dress that was considered too revealing.10 And in 2007, Pleajhia Mervin was harmed by a California school security officer after she dropped a piece of cake on the school’s cafeteria floor and refused to pick it up.11
Some of the most egregious applications of punitive school discipline in this country have criminalized Black girls as young as six or seven years old, who have been arrested for throwing tantrums in their school classrooms, yelling and screaming at a teacher, and being disruptive to the learning environment. Six-year-old Salecia Johnson was arrested in Georgia in 2012 for having a tantrum in her classroom.12 In 2011, seven-year-old Michelle Mitchell was arrested with her eight-year-old brother after they got into a fight on an Ohio school bus.13 And six-year-old Desre’e Watson was handcuffed and arrested at a Florida school in in 2007 for throwing a tantrum in her kindergarten class.14
These cases were so extreme that they managed to capture considerable public attention—mostly through social media. However, they were never pieced together to present a comprehensive, national portrait of how school responses to the disruptive behaviors of Black girls push them out and often render them vulnerable to further victimization and delinquency. It turns out that the incidents involving Ashlynn, Kiera, Marché, Pleajhia, Salecia, Michelle, and Desre’e were not isolated ones. Black girls from coast to coast tell stories of being criminalized and pushed out of schools.
For many Black girls, interactions between the justice system and schools often do not begin, or end, in school. The surveillance to which Black girls are subjected, and the punitive responses to either their (sometimes poor, sometimes typical) decision making or their reactions to perceived injustice have made contact with law enforcement a frequent occurrence. The implementation of zero-tolerance policies, as I will discuss throughout this book, has become the primary driver of an unscrupulous school-based reliance on law enforcement and school security guards. People who often know little to nothing about child or adolescent development, and who often lack the appropriate awareness and training for the school environments they patrol, are responding to behaviors that were previously managed by skilled teachers, counselors, principals, and other professionals. While there are plenty of numbers and statistics that paint a troubling picture, the harm done by this shift can hardly be quantified. Black girls are being criminalized in and by the very places that should help them thrive.
Historical Perspectives on the Importance of Educating Black Girls
Long before the Supreme Court handed down its decision in Brown v. Board of Education, Black women were clear about the liberative power of education. Under slavery, the education of people of African descent was illegal and considered a punishable offense under state slave codes.* In Georgia, enslaved Africans or other free people of color were fined or whipped, at the discretion of the court, if discovered reading or writing “in either written or printed characters.”15 In this society, to read challenged the oppressive, controlling logic of slavery and the presupposed inferiority of Black people. For many enslaved Black women, learning to read represented a reclamation of human dignity and provided an opportunity to ground their challenges to the institution in scholarship, literature, and biblical scripture. Many a Black woman’s commitment to education was so strong that she risked incarceration or other penalties just to attain it.
States with slave codes that delineated the status of enslaved persons and the rights of their “owners” included Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, Mary land, Louisiana, Texas, and parts of Missouri, among others.
Why take the risk? Because Black women understood the reward. Having an education would make it much harder for Black people to be relegated to servitude and poverty. Those Black women who became educators and generally learned people were able to renegotiate power relationships that had previously held them in bondage, and recast themselves as directors of their own destinies. Education provided an alternative—and it was tangible. It was tangible in 1793, when Catherine Ferguson, a formerly enslaved young woman, committed her life to corralling “poor and neglected” Black and White children for religious instruction on Sunday.16 Though she could not read or write herself, as the founder of New York’s first Sunday school, Ferguson was hungry to pass on her faith practice and the important educational lessons that she knew would provide tools for others to secure a better future.17 It was tangible in 1853 when Sarah Mapps Douglass, an abolitionist and passionate educator, led the girls’ preparatory department for the Philadelphia Institute for Colored Youth.18 It was tangible in 1904 when Mary McLeod Bethune opened the Daytona Educational and Industrial Training School; with just five students, she built the foundation for what would eventually become a co-ed institution of higher learning, Bethune-Cookman College.19
In each of these cases, Black women understood that education was a core civil and human right. It was the foundation upon which a life of opportunity stood. It was a critical tool for advancement in a society that regularly practiced discrimination against women and against people of color. But the road was neither easy nor straight. Black women’s efforts to establish educational pathways encountered significant backlash. In the South, where efforts to restrict opportunity followed the emancipation of enslaved Black people, education was embraced as a tool for the upward mobility of freemen and freewomen—which meant that to be educated remained a threat to the power structure. Fear of retaliation was warranted and quite palpable.
In October 1871, thirty-five-year-old Carolyn Smith, in testimony before Congress, described the terror that Black communities in Atlanta, Georgia, felt from the Ku Klux Klan in response to their quest for education. In her testimony, she was asked about a beating that she and her husband endured one night from a group of men who identified as Ku Klux Klan members: “They said we should not have any schools . . . They went to a colored man there, whose son had been teaching school, and they took every book they had and threw them into the fire; and they said they would dare any other nigger to have a book in his house.”20
Historically, to be a scholar was a dangerous proposition for Black Americans and countless Black women and men have died to be able to read and write. The lingering barriers to a quality education and the transgenerational trauma associated with internalized ideas about performance in school have yet to be exhaustively measured. However, the systematic denial of equal access to education for African American children has been documented and successfully challenged in the judicial system,21 in the social sciences,22 and in the court of public opinion.23
While White students and students of color have continued to experience separate and unequal learning environments over the past six decades, most legal and educational reform advocates recognize Brown v. Board of Education (1954) as the landmark case that ended legal segregation in our society.* Brown was both a precursor to civil rights laws designed to guarantee equal protection and eliminate de jure segregation as well as an important extension of a growing public will to reimagine the promise of American democracy.† However, while de jure segregation may have ended in many ways with the Brown decision, affecting public policy well beyond the issue of education, it did not address the ways in which enduring xenophobia, tribalism, and the intersections between race and poverty would sustain de facto segregation—expanded residential racial isolation that by extension kept schools highly segregated. The decision also did not anticipate future proxies for race (including class and criminal conviction history) that would later facilitate a resegregation of several public learning spaces that had in fact managed notable progress on integration.
The Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) was actually a combination of five cases from five different jurisdictions: Delaware (Gebhart v. Belton, 1952), Kansas (Brown v. Board of Education, 1951), South Carolina (Briggs v. Elliott, 1952), Virginia (Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, 1952), and the District of Columbia (Bolling v. Sharpe, 1952).
For the purposes of this book, de jure segregation is defined as the practice of forcibly separating people along racial or ethnic lines, using laws, policy, or practice.
Since the elimination of de jure segregation, Black girls have been subjected to harmful stereotypes about Black femininity that have at least shaped and at worst defined their experiences in classrooms and schools around the country. The ways in which Black girls’ educational experiences would be constructed according to a hierarchy that favors White middle-class norms has been floating under the national radar for six decades. As Patricia Hill-Collins wrote, “All women engage an ideology that deems middle-class, heterosexual, White femininity as normative. In this context, Black femininity as a subordinated gender identity becomes constructed not just in relation to White women, but also in relation to multiple others, namely, all men, sexual outlaws (prostitutes and lesbians), unmarried women, and girls.�
�24
While not referring specifically to educational environments, these norms permeate and shape how Black women and girls are understood and treated in innumerable aspects of public and private life. The purpose of this book is to interrogate the racial and gender inequality that still prevails in education more than sixty years after Brown v. Board of Education. In setting forth some truths that have heretofore been ignored or obscured, my aim is to chart a new path and advocate for efforts that move beyond the “deliberate speed” rhetoric that has for too long underserved low-income girls of color, Black girls in particular.
The central argument of this book is that too many Black girls are being criminalized (and physically and mentally harmed) by beliefs, policies, and actions that degrade and marginalize both their learning and their humanity, leading to conditions that push them out of schools and render them vulnerable to even more harm. We can counter the criminalization of Black girls in schools by first understanding what their criminalization looks like, and then by building a common language and framework for making sure that struggling Black girls are not left behind. We can all get behind a fair and effective education strategy that provides a quality education for every young person.
Expanding the School-to-Prison Pipeline Discussion
In a 2012 report, Race, Gender, and the “School to Prison Pipeline”: Expanding Our Discussion to Include Black Girls,25 I argued that the “pipeline” framework has been largely developed from the conditions and experiences of males. It limits our ability to see the ways in which Black girls are affected by surveillance (zero-tolerance policies, law enforcement in schools, metal detectors, etc.) and the ways in which advocates, scholars, and other stakeholders may have wrongfully masculinized Black girls’ experiences. It encourages a kind of myopia that leaves everyone involved without a proper understanding or articulation of the school relationships and other factors that put Black girls in “the system” and on paths toward incarceration.
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