2. Genetics and Ice
1. Subir Bhaumik, ‘Tsunami Folklore Saved Islanders’, BBC News (20 January 2005). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4181855.stm.
2. John C. Briggs, ‘The Biogeographic and Tectonic History of India’, Journal of Biogeography (2003).
3. Helen Shen, ‘Unusual Indian Ocean Earthquakes Hint at Tectonic Breakup’, Nature (Sepember 2012). http://www.nature.com/news/unusual-indian-ocean-earthquakes-hint-at-tectonic-breakup-1.11487.
4. The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) data. http://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_intro.html.
5. Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Harvill Secker, 2014).
6. Yu-Sheng Chen (et al.), ‘mtDNA Variation in the South African Kung and Khwe—and Their Genetic Relationships with Other African Populations’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2000). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1288201/.
7. Nicole Maca-Meyer (et al.), ‘Major Genomic Mitochondrial Lineages to Delineate Early Human Expansions’, BMC Genetics (2001).
8. Rakesh Tamang (et al.), ‘Complex Genetic Origin of Indian Populations and Its Implications’, Journal of Biosciences (2012).
9. Jeffrey Rose, ‘New Light on Human Prehistory in the Arabo-Persian Gulf Oasis’, Current Anthropology (Chicago University, 2010).
10. Stephen Oppenheimer, ‘Out-of-Africa, the Peopling of Continents and Islands: Tracing Uniparental Gene Trees across the Map’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (2012).
11. Clive Finlayson (et al.), ‘Gorham’s Cave, Gibraltar—the Persistence of a Neanderthal Population’, Quarterly International (2008).
12. ‘Neanderthal DNA Hides in Genes Dictating Our Hair, Skin’, Associated Press (29 January 2014); Sriram Sankararaman (et al.), ‘The Genomic Landscape of Neanderthal Ancestry in Present-Day Humans’, Nature (January 2014).
13. Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind (Harvill Secker, 2014).
14. Guardian, http://www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/08/cave-art-indonesia-sulawesi
15. Telegraph, http://epaper.telegraphindia.com/details/112778-173917265.html
16. Findings of the Human Genome Organization’s Pan-Asian SNP Consortium: http://www.hugo-international.org/blog/?p=123.
17. Rakesh Tamang, Lalji Singh and Kumarasamy Thangaraj, ‘Complex Genetic Origin of Indian Populations and Its Implications’, published online by Indian Academy of Sciences (November 2012).
18. Nature, http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/full/ejhg201450a.html
19. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
20. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
21. Ainit Snir (et al.), ‘The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming’, Israel Science Foundation (July 2015). http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422.
22. Max Engel (et al.), ‘The Early Holocene Humid Period in North-West Saudi Arabia—Sediments, Microfossils and Paleo-hydrological Modelling’, Quarterly International (July 2012). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1040618211002424.
23. Report of Dr S. Badrinarayan, National Institute of Ocean Technology. http://archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/cambay.
24. Shi Yan (et al.), ‘Y Chromosomes of 40% Chinese Descend from Three Neolithic Super-Grandfathers’, Quantitative Biology (2013).
25. Peter Underhill (et al.), ‘The Phylogenetic and Geographic Structure of Y-chromosome R1a’, European Journal of Human Genetics (2014). http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ejhg201450a.html.
26. Nature, http://www.nature.com/ejhg/journal/v23/n1/full/ejhg201450a.html
27. Peter Underhill (et al.), ‘Separating the post-Glacial Coancestry of Europeans and Asian Y Chromosomes within R1a’, European Journal of Human Genetics (2010).
28. Viola Grugni (et al.), ‘Ancient Migratory Events in the Middle East: New Clues from the Y-Chromosome Variation of Modern Iranians’, University of Cambridge (2012), Creative Commons.
29. Marc Haber (et al.), ‘Afghanistan’s Ethnic Groups Share a Y-Chromosomal Heritage Structured by Historical Events’, PLoS ONE 7 (3) (March, 2012). http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0034288.
30. Gerard Lucotte, ‘The Major Y-Chromosome Haplotype XI—Haplogroup R1a in Eurasia’, Hereditary Genetics (2015). http://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/the-major-ychromosome-haplotype-xi--haplogroup-r1a-in-eurasia-2161-1041-1000150.pdf.
31. ‘Europeans Got Fair Skin Only 7000 Years Ago: Study’, IANS, Times of India (27 January 2014).
3. The Merchants of Meluhha
1. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
2. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
3. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
4. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
5. Nick Brooks, ‘Cultural Responses to Aridity in the Middle Holocene and Increased Social Complexity’, Quarterly International (2006). http://www.academia.edu/463993/Cultural_responses_to_aridity_in_the_Middle_Holocene_and_increased_social_complexity.
6. Readers interested in the debate over the Saraswati should read Michel Danino’s The Lost River: On the Trail of the Sarasvati (Penguin, 2010).
7. Rohan Dua, ‘Haryana’s Bhirrana Oldest Harappan Site, Rakhigarhi Asia’s Largest: ASI’, Times of India (15 April 2015). http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chandigarh/Haryanas-Bhirrana-oldest-Harappan-site-Rakhigarhi-Asias-largest-ASI/articleshow/46926693.cms.
8. Anindya Sarkar (et al.), ‘Oxygen Isotope in Archaeological Bioapatites from India: Implications to Climate Change and Decline of Bronze Age Harappan Civilization’, Scientific Reports, Nature (2016). http://www.nature.com/articles/srep26555.
9. Mary R. Edward, Maritime Heritage of Gujarat, Kathiawad and Kutch, Maritime History Society (2013).
10. Penn Museum, http://www.penn.museum/research/research-near-east-section/804-the-jiroft-civilization-a-new-culture-of-the-bronze-age-on-the-iranian-plateau.html
11. Massimo Vidale and Dennys Frenez, ‘Indus Components in the Iconography of a White Marble Cylinder Seal from Konar Sandal South (Kerman, Iran)’, South Asian Studies (Routledge, 2015).
12. Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (OUP, 2014).
13. Rajiv Rajan and Anand Prakash, ‘Internationalisation of Currency: The Case of the Indian Rupee and Chinese Renminbi’, RBI Staff Studies (2010).
14. Massimo Vidale, ‘Growing in a Foreign World: For a History of the “Meluha Villages” in Mesopotamia in the 3rd Millennium BC’, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Symposium on Assyrian and Babylonian Intellectual Heritage Project, A. Panaino and A. Piras (eds) (October 2001).
15. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson, 2009).
16. Ralph Griffith, The Hymns of the Rig Veda (Motilal Banarasidass, 2004).
17. Yama Dixit (et al.), ‘Abrupt Weakening of the Summer Monsoon in Northwest India 4100 Years Ago’, Geology, (February 2014). http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/early/2014/02/24/G35236.1.full.pdf+html.
18. Adapted from http://faculty.washington.edu/lynnhank/The_Curse_of_Akkad.html
19. Anindya Sarkar (et al.), ‘Oxygen Isotope in Archaeological Bioapatites from India: Implications to Climate Change and Decline of Bronze Age Harappan Civilization’, Scientific Reports, Nature (2016). http://www.nature.com/articles/srep26555.
20. Priya Moorjani (et al.), ‘Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2013).
21. Priya Moorjani (et al.), ‘Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2013).
22. Analabha Basu (et al.), ‘Genomic Reconstruction of the History of Extant Populations of India Reveals Five Distinct An
cestral Components and a Complex Structure’, National Institute of Bio-medical Genomics (January 2016).
23. B.R. Ambedkar, Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development (Columbia University, 1916). http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00ambedkar/txt_ambedkar_castes.html.
24. Jhimli Mukherjee Pandey, ‘Varanasi Is As Old As Indus Valley Civilization, Finds IIT-KGP Study’, Times of India (25 February 2016).
25. Siddharth Tadepalli, ‘Rare Discovery Pushes Back Iron Age in India’, Times of India, 18 May 2015.
26. George Rapp, Archaeomineralogy (Springer, 2009).
27. Vibha Tripathi, History of Iron Technology in India (Rupa and Infinity Foundation, 2008).
28. Priya Moorjani (et al.), ‘Genetic Evidence for Recent Population Mixture in India’, American Journal of Human Genetics (2013).
29. Payam Nabarz, The Mysteries of Mithras: The Pagan Belief that Shaped the Christian World (Inner Traditions, 2005). Also see, http://www.historytoday.com/matt-salusbury/did-romans-invent-christmas.
30. Val Lauder, When Christmas was against the law, CNN (24 December 2014). http://edition.cnn.com/2014/12/24/opinion/lauder-when-christmas-was-against-law/.
31. Robert Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs (Routledge, 2001).
32. Edward Alpers, The Indian Ocean in World History (OUP, 2014).
33. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of a Continent (Penguin, 1998).
34. Rebecca Morelle, ‘Ancient Migration: Genes Link Australia with India’, BBC World Service (January 2013). http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21016700.
35. Pedro Soares (et al.), ‘Climate Change and Postglacial Human Dispersals in South east Asia’, Molecular Biology and Evolution (Oxford Journals, 2008). http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/content/25/6/1209.long.
36. India’s north-east would witness many later migrations, such as those of the Tibeto-Burmans. For the sake of simplicity, I have left them out of this book as their impact was more on the history of the Himalayan region than the Indian Ocean.
37. Yves Bonnefoy, Asian Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1993).
38. Patrick Nunn and Nick Reid, ‘Indigenous Australian Stories and Sea-Level Change’, Proceedings of the 18th Conference of the Foundation for Endangered Languages (2014).
39. Gyaneshwer Chaubey (et al.), ‘Population Genetic Structure in Indian Austroasiatic Speakers: The Role of Landscape and Sex-Specific Admixture’ (May 2012). http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3355372/.
40. Note that Ulupi’s Naga tribe may not relate to tribes living in modern-day Nagaland as they probably came into this area at a much later date. However, the term ‘Naga’ or ‘serpent’ was used loosely from an early period to refer to people of South East Asian origin both by Indians and by the groups themselves.
4. Kharavela’s Revenge
1. The Origins of Iron-Working in India, Report of Rakesh Tewari, Director, UP State Archaeological Department (2003). http://antiquity.ac.uk/projgall/tewari/tewari.pdf.
2. Sanjeev Sanyal, Land of the Seven Rivers (Penguin, 2012).
3. Sushanta Patra and Benudhar Patra, Archaeology and the Maritime History of Ancient Orissa, OHRJ, Vol. 2. http://orissa.gov.in/e-magazine/Journal/Journal2/pdf/ohrj-014.pdf.
4. Lanka Ranaweera (et al.), ‘Mitochondrial DNA History of Sri Lankan Ethnic People: Their Relations within the Island and with the Indian Subcontinental Population’, Journal of Human Genetics (2013). http://www.nature.com/jhg/journal/v59/n1/full/jhg2013112a.html.
5. ‘Simplified Version of Mahavamsa’, http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/simplified-version/princess-of-vanga/
6. Robert Knox, An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon, in the East Indies, published by Joseph Mawman (1817); reprinted by Asian Educational Services (2011).
7. Herodotus, The Histories (Wordsworth Classics, 1996).
8. A. Azzaroli, An Early History of Horsemanship (E.J. Brill Leiden,1985). This early Indian version of the stirrup seems to have consisted of leather straps where the rider could slip in his big toe. These are depicted in several sculptures. The true stirrup was invented several centuries later in Central Asia.
9. Agnes Savill, Alexander the Great and His Time (Barnes & Noble, 1993).
10. Konstantin Nossov, War Elephants (New Vanguard, 2008).
11. Charles Allen, Ashoka (Little Brown, 2012).
12. Nayanjot Lahiri, Ashoka in Ancient India (Permanent Black, 2015).
13. Prafulla Das, ‘Exploring an Ancient Kingdom’, Frontline (September 2005). http://www.frontline.in/static/html/fl2220/stories/20051007000106500.htm.
14. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
15. John Strong, The Legend of King Asoka: The Study and Translation of the Asokavadana (Princeton University Press, 2003).
16. For more see: ‘Ashoka, the Not So Great’, Sanjeev Sanyal, Swarajya magazine (22 November 2015). http://swarajyamag.com/culture/ashoka-the-not-so-great.
17. See more on this in, ‘Why India Needs to No Longer Be an Ashokan Republic, but a Chanakyan One’, Sanjeev Sanyal, Economic Times (26 January 2016). http://blogs.economictimes.indiatimes.com/et-commentary/why-india-needs-to-no-longer-be-an-ashokan-republic-but-a-chanakyan-one/.
18. Kautilya, The Arthashastra, L.N. Rangarajan (trans.) (Penguin, 1987).
19. Ashoka’s Edict XIII, Routledge online resources, http://cw.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415485432/5.asp.
20. Several authors like Nayanjot Lahiri have claimed that some of the Barabar and Nagarjuni caves were built by Ashoka for the Ajivikas and therefore suggest that he patronized them. However, note that the only king mentioned by name in the inscriptions is Dasharatha and there is no mention of Ashoka. The confusion is due to the fact that Dasharatha uses language very similar to his predecessor and, like Ashoka, calls himself ‘Beloved of the Gods’. The generic title may have also been used by Ashoka’s father, Bindusara, who is known to have Ajivika links (in which case the Barabar caves would be the only known structure from his rule). Even if one accepts that Ashoka built the Barabar cave shelters for Ajivikas, the fact is that they were never finished and one can see that the term ‘Ajivika’ in the inscription was later deliberately vandalized. Clearly, there was some religious tension in the air. The point is that the matter is not as settled as mainstream historians claim and is largely a matter of interpretation. See Lahiri’s Ashoka in Ancient India (Permanent Black, 2015).
21. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
22. The Hindu, http://www.thehindu.com/features/friday-review/history-and-culture/satvahana-site-to-be-reexcavated/article6842796.ece?ref=sliderNews
23. ‘Translation of Hathigumpha Inscription’, Epigraphica Indica, Vol. XX (1933). http://www.sdstate.edu/projectsouthasia/upload/HathigumphaInscription.pdf.
24. Note that Kharavela seems to have followed both Jain and Vedic rituals. He uses salutations derived from the Jain tradition but also mentions Vedic fire sacrifices including the Rajasuya. Interestingly there is no reference to Buddhism. The Odiya probably still resented it as an Ashokan imposition.
5. Kaundinya’s Wedding
1. Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia, Vol. 1 (CUP, 1999).
2. D.G.E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia (Macmillan, 1981).
3. Karuna Sagar Behera (ed.), Kalinga–Indonesia Cultural Relations (Orissan Institute of Maritime and South East Asian Studies, 2007).
4. Nicholas Tarling (ed.), The Cambridge History of South-east Asia, Vol. 1 (CUP, 1999).
5. As quoted in Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
6. A. Shrikumar, ‘A Dead City Beneath a Living Village’, The Hindu (19 August 2015).
7. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India (OUP, 1975). It should be pointed out that the formalizing of Sanskrit grammar was also done by an ‘outsider’, Panini, from what is now North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan, and
eastern Afghanistan rather than someone from the Gangetic heartland.
8. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India (OUP, 1975).
9. K.M. de Silva, A History of Sri Lanka (Penguin, 2005).
10. Adapted from: Senake Bandaranayake, Sigiriya (Central Cultural Fund publication, 2005).
11. Wilfred Schoff (trans.), The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Longmans, Green & Co, 1912).
12. Raoul McLaughlin, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean (Pen and Sword, 2014).
13. P.J. Cherian (et al.), ‘Interim Report of the Pattanam Excavations/Explorations 2013’ (Kerala Council of Historical Research, 2013).
14. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A History of South India (OUP, 1975).
15. Pius Malekandathil, Maritime India (Primus Books, 2015). It is possible that the story of St Thomas is due to a mix-up with Thomas of Cana about whom there is more reliable information.
16. Raoul McLaughlin, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean (Pen and Sword, 2014).
17. Sanjeev Sanyal, Are We Entering a Post-Dollar World?, The Wide Angle Series (Deutsche Bank, 2011); Sanjeev Sanyal, The Age of Chinese Capital, The Wide Angle Series (Deutsche Bank, 2014).
18. Raoul McLaughlin, The Roman Empire and the Indian Ocean (Pen and Sword, 2014).
19. Murray Cox (et al.), ‘A Small Cohort of Island South-east Asian Women Founded Madagascar’ (The Royal Society, 2012).
20. Richard Hall, Empires of the Monsoon (HarperCollins, 1996).
21. Philip Beale, ‘From Indonesia to Africa: Borobudur Ship Expedition’, Ziff Journal (2006). http://www.swahiliweb.net/ziff_journal_3_files/ziff2006-04.pdf.
22. Sen Li (et al.), ‘Genetic Variation Reveals Large-scale Population Expansion and Migration During the Expansion of Bantu-speaking People’ (The Royal Society, September 2014). http://rspb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/281/1793/20141448.
23. John Reader, Africa: A Biography of the Continent (Penguin, 1998).
6. Arabian Knights
1. Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India (Pearson Longman, 2009).
The Ocean of Churn: How the Indian Ocean Shaped Human History Page 29
