by Bibek Debroy
‘“But in the course of time, attachment started to grow. The monthly periods started and conception followed. They got attached to the trees that were there in the homes. Those trees were destroyed and other trees with four branches sprouted. These yielded fruits, garments and ornaments. There were cups of fruit in those trees, filled with honey that was not produced by bees. It possessed fragrance, colour and taste and was full of energy. At the beginning of treta yuga, they subsisted on this. In the course of time, avarice was generated in them. They seized those trees, with a sense of ownership in their minds. Because of this perverse conduct, these trees were destroyed. The opposite pairs of sentiments resulted, heat, cold, hunger and so on. To overcome these opposite pairs of sentiments, the first cities were constructed. They found refuge in fortresses in deserts, mountains, caves, trees, valleys and water. Those artificial fortresses were measured according to the size of the human finger. Measurements were laid down for the first time. The first unit is a paramanu, the fine particle of dust that can be seen when the sun’s ray is filtered through a net. Then follow trasarenu, mahiraja, valagra, liksha, yuka and yava. 544 It is said that each unit is eight times the preceding one. Eight yavas constitute an angula. 545 Six angulas constitute a pada. Two padas are said to constitute a vitasti. Two vitastis constitute a hasta, as measured up to the root of the thumb. 546 Four hastas constitute a dhanurdanda or two nadikas. Two thousand dhanurdandas constitute a krosha or gavyuti. Four gavyutis are said to make up one yojana. The wise have thought of measurements in this way. Out of four kinds of fortresses, three are natural and the fourth is artificial. The artificial one is constructed. O brahmana! Separately, they also constructed and laid out pura, khetaka, dronimukha, shakha-nagara, kharvataka, dromi, grama and samghosha. A pura is surrounded by walls and moats on all sides. The diameter measures one quarter of a yojana and it is divided into eight segments. The best puras slope down towards water in the northern or eastern direction and are populated by those born from pure families. A khetaka has half the qualities of a pura, a kharvataka has half the qualities of a khetaka and a dronimukha is said to have one-eighth the qualities of a kharvataka. A kharvataka is said to be a pura without walls and moats. A habitation populated by ministers and vassals is known as a shakha-nagara. A grama is known as that which is generally populated by shudras. It obtains its prosperity on the basis of its own agriculture. It is located in the midst of fertile fields. When men from another city come to undertake business in a city and create a settlement there, men know this as a vasati. When there is a grama which is generally inhabited by wicked people who do not possess land, but use their power to seize the land of others, populated by those who are dear to the king, that is known as a dromi. There are regions where cowherds bring their vessels on carts and reside as they please, without building houses. There are no shops there and there are herds of cows. These are known as ghosha. 547 Remembering the trees that existed earlier, to overcome the opposite pairs of sentiments, they thus created those kinds of cities.
‘“The branches of a tree grow in one direction, while other branches grow in a different direction. Some branches grow upwards, others downwards. O supreme among brahmanas! The branches of the kalpavrikshas used to be like that earlier. Those houses were like the branches of those trees. 548 To overcome the opposite pairs of sentiments, they started to think about means of subsistence. In particular, the kalpavrikshas and their honey had been destroyed. The subjects were miserable and anxious, afflicted by hunger and thirst. At the beginning of treta yuga, their success was manifested in a different way. They obtained a means of subsistence through a different mode. Whenever they wished for it, it rained. The water from this rain flowed downwards. This water from the rain flowed in the form of canals and rivers. Earlier, the flow of water on earth was limited. Devoid of any impurities, that water united with the land. Without being tilled and without being sown, fourteen types 549 of trees and creepers sprouted in villages and forests and these yielded seasonal flowers and fruits. At the beginning of treta yuga, herbs also manifested themselves. O sage! At the beginning of treta yuga, subjects suddenly started to suffer from attachment and avarice. However, they used the herbs for sustenance. Suffering from jealousy, according to their strength, they seized rivers, fields, mountains, trees, creepers and herbs. O brahmana! Because of this sin, as they looked on, those herbs were destroyed. O immensely intelligent one! Because of this sin, the earth instantly devoured these herbs. Suffering from hunger, the subjects again went and sought refuge with Parameshthi Brahma. The illustrious lord got to know the truth about the earth having devoured the herbs. Like milking a cow, he used Mount Meru as a calf to milk crops on the surface of the earth. At this, the seeds of domestic crops and forest crops were generated again. The herbs that lead to ripe crops are said to be of seventeen types—vrihi, yava, godhuma, anu, tila, priyangu, kovidara, koradusha, tinaka, masha, mudga, mashura, nishpava, kulatthaka, adhaka, chanaka and shana. 550 Earlier, these herbs grew near villages. From the village and from the forest, there are fourteen kinds of herbs that can be used in sacrifices—paddy, barley, wheat, millet, sesamum, saffron as the sixth, fine pulse as the seventh, shyamaka, wild paddy, wild sesamum, gavedhuka, kuruvinda, markataka and bamboo. 551 These are said to be the fourteen kinds of herbs, from the village and from the forest. But though these herbs were created, they did not germinate again. Therefore, he ensured a means so that they would grow and be nurtured. The illustrious Svayambhu Brahma ensured that success would be brought about through the use of the hands. Since then, herbs ripened after tilling and sowing. That is the way the lord himself ensured a means for these to be nurtured. The supreme among the upholders of dharma also established the proper ordinances and norms of dharma for the varnas and the ashramas, according to their qualities. This set out the proper means of achieving dharma for all the varnas and also established their worlds. Prajapati’s world is for brahmanas who perform the rites, Indra’s world for kshatriyas who do not run away from battle, Marut’s world for vaishyas who follow their own dharma and the world of the gandharvas for those among the shudras who observe servitude. There are eighty-eight thousand rishis who hold up their seed. Their world is for those who reside with their gurus. The world of the saptarshis is said to be for those who reside in the forest. Prajapati’s world is for those who are householders and Brahma’s world, for a temporary period, for those who resort to sannyasa. The immortal world is for yogis. These were the worlds that were fashioned.”’
Chapter 47
‘Markandeya continued, “As he meditated, subjects were born through his mental powers. They were born with bodies, with tasks and with the means for accomplishing these. The bodies were generated from the intelligent one’s body. I have already described how they were created. Beginning with the gods and ending with inanimate objects, everything is said to consist of the three gunas. In this way, mobile and immobile objects were created. However, all these subjects did not grow. Therefore, the intelligent one used his mental powers to create sons who were exactly like him. The Puranas have determined that Brahma’s nine sons, born through his mental powers, are Bhrigu, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Angiras, Marichi, Daksha, Atri and Vashishtha. After this, from his rage, Brahma again created Rudra. After this, Samkalpa and Dharma were created. There were others who had been created earlier, Sananda and the others. 552 But their minds turned to dharma. They were indifferent and controlled, not attached to the worlds. All of them knew about the future. They were devoid of envy and devoid of attachment. The great-souled Brahma saw that they were indifferent towards creating subjects and was filled with great rage. From this anger emerged a being with an extremely large body. He was half-man and half-woman and like the sun in his complexion. ‘Divide yourself in two.’ Saying this, he 553 vanished. Thus addressed, he divided the man from the woman. He also divided the man into eleven parts. The lord segregated the divine masculine and feminine beings into many parts, depending on whether they were amiable or no
t, serene or not, fair or not.
‘“O brahmana! In this way, the lord Brahma first created Svayambhu Manu, who was just like him, for the purpose of protecting subjects. He also created the woman, Shatarupa, whose sins were cleansed through her austerities. The lord Svayambhu Manu accepted her as his wife. Shatarupa gave birth to two sons, Priyavrata and Uttanapada. They were famous because of their own deeds. She also had two daughters, Akuti and Prasuti. In those ancient times, their father bestowed Prasuti on Daksha and Akuti on Ruchi. Prajapati 554 accepted her as his wife and Yajna and Dakshina were born from them. O immensely fortunate one! When Yajna and Dakshina indulged in intercourse as a couple, twelve sons were born to them. These are known as the Yamas, the gods during Svayambhuva manvantara. These were the radiant sons of Yajna and Dakshina. Daksha and Prasuti had twenty-four daughters. Listen to their correct names. The lord Dharma accepted thirteen of Daksha’s daughters as his wife—Shraddha, Lakshmi, Dhriti, Tushti, Pushti, Medha, Kriya, Buddhi, Lajja, Vapu, Shanti, Siddhi and Kirti. 555 In due order, the eleven well-behaved and beautiful-eyed younger daughters, Khyati, Satya, Sambhuti, Smriti, Priti, Kshama, Santati, Anasuya, Urja, Svaha and Svadha, were bestowed on the rishis Bhrigu, Bhava, Marichi, the sage Angiras, Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Vasishtha, Atri, Vahni and the ancestors. Shraddha gave birth to Kama, Shri 556 to Darpa, Dhriti to Niyama, Tushti to Santosha, Pushti to Lobha, Medha to Shruta, Kriya to Danda, Buddhi to Bodha, Lajja to Vinaya, Vapu to Vyavasaya, Shanti to Kshema, Siddhi to Sukha and Kirti to Yasha. All these were born through Dharma. Kama gave birth to Atimuda and Harsha, Dharma’s grandsons. Adharma’s wife was Himsa and Anrita was born through them. Their daughter was Nirriti and she had two sons, Naraka and Bhaya. These two respectively united with Vedana and Maya. Maya gave birth to Mrityu, who bears created beings away. Through Rourava, 557 Vedana gave birth to a son named Duhkha. Mrityu gave birth to Vyadhi, Jara, Shoka, Trishna and Krodha. All those born from Duhkha are said to be characterized by adharma. None of them had wives or children. 558 They held up their seed. O sage! Other than Nirriti, Mrityu had another wife. Her name was Alakshmi and she had fourteen sons. All of Alakshmi’s sons follow Mrityu’s instructions and at the time of death, present themselves before men. Hear about them. Ten of them base themselves on the ten senses and the eleventh bases himself on the mind. They respectively engage the man or the woman in the object of the senses. O brahmana! They attack the senses of men with attachment and anger, engaging them excessively with adharma and causing harm. Another bases himself in ahamkara. Yet another bases himself in buddhi. Thus deluded, men make efforts to destroy women.
‘“Finally, there is one who is known by the name of Duhsaha and he bases himself in the houses of men. He is afflicted by hunger and his face is downcast. He is either naked, or is dressed in rags. His voice is like that of a crow. With tamas as his store, Brahma created him so that he could devour everything. His teeth are excessively cruel and his terrible face gapes. He is full of desire and delusion. The undecaying Brahma, the grandfather of the worlds and the pure cause behind the universe that is full of the brahman, spoke to him. Brahma said, ‘You should not devour this universe. Conquer your rage and be pacified. Give up the conduct that is based on tamas and follow the conduct that is based on rajas.’ Duhsaha replied, ‘O protector of the universe. I am afflicted by hunger. I am thirsty and weak. O protector! How will I obtain satisfaction? How will I become strong? Tell me. Where will I seek refuge? If I withdraw from these things, how will I subsist?’ Brahma said, ‘Your refuge is the houses of men. People who follow adharma constitute your strength. O child! You will always obtain sustenance when the rituals are destroyed. Boils and the webs of spiders will be your garments. I will give you your food. For the sake of your sustenance, I am giving you—food that has been sneezed on; food full of insects; food a dog has glanced at; food kept in broken vessels; food cooled by blowing on it with the mouth; leftovers; food not cooked; food that perspiration has fallen into; food licked; food that is unclean; food partaken on a broken seat; food eaten without offering it to a guest; food eaten when facing the south; food eaten at the time of sandhya; food eaten to the sound of dancing or the playing of musical instruments; food cooked, eaten or looked at by a woman going through her periods; and any food or drink so polluted that it should not be had. There are other things I will give you—food eaten without offering oblations, without bathing, or eaten disrespectfully; food given without touching water first; that flung away as useless; discarded food that is discovered; food given because one has been caught by surprise; and food given by a person who is angry or wicked. O yaksha! You will obtain these as your shares. O yaksha! For your satisfaction, I am giving you—sacrificial rites performed for the next world by the son of a remarried widow; sacrificial rites performed for the next world by the daughter of a remarried widow; rites undertaken through wealth obtained by charging a bride price for one’s daughter; all the rites performed by following wicked texts; everything undertaken for the purpose of obtaining wealth; and everything studied through falsehood. O yaksha! All these are for your sustenance. I give you all these so that your desires are successful. O Duhsaha! Men who have intercourse with pregnant women; those who do not perform the regular rites at the time of sandhya; and all the men who are polluted by following wicked texts—all these will always be under your subjugation. You will always reside in pankti differences, in pointless cooking, in differences created while cooking and in quarrels within homes. 559 When servants tether cattle and mounts without feeding them first and when the house is not sprinkled in the evening with water, men will truly be scared of you. You will subjugate men who suffer from nakshatras, planets and portents about the three kinds of hardship, 560 without trying to pacify them. O yaksha! You will reap the fruits of all those who fast without any reason; those whose minds are such that they are always addicted to gambling and women; those who malign their benefactors; those who follow the cat’s vows; 561 those who study without being brahmacharis; those who are ignorant, but perform sacrifices; those who live in hermitages, but have not conquered their senses and indulge in carnal pleasures; brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras who have deviated from their own tasks; and those who undertake rites only for the sake of gains in the world hereafter. Hear about the other things I am giving you for your sustenance—after sacrifices to the Vishvadevas, anything that is offered to you, mentioning you by name. You should avoid the house of a man who eats after the food has been properly purified, a man who is not greedy and who has not become subservient to his wife. Roam around, outside his house. O yaksha! Avoid the house of a person who worships the gods and the ancestors with havya and kavya and tends to daughters and guests, and the house of a man who looks after children, women and the aged. Also avoid a house where there is affection among the relatives. O yaksha! Always avoid a house where the women are loving and bashful and do not want to go out. O yaksha! Listen to my words. Avoid a house where the seats and beds offered are appropriate to the age and the relationship; where the members are compassionate and always engaged in virtuous deeds; and where they are content with ordinary possessions. O yaksha! Always avoid such a house. O yaksha! Always avoid a house where the householder sits only after preceptors, seniors and brahmanas are seated. A house where trees and creepers have not covered the gate and a house where the inner organs of men are not suffering, is not a good house for you. Avoid a house where the man eats leftover food from a vessel after gods, ancestors, servants and ancestors have eaten. O yaksha! Avoid men who are truthful in speech, forgiving, non-violent and remorseful, those who possess good conduct and are not envious. Avoid women who are devoted to serving their husbands, those who avoid association with evil women and those who eat leftover food after relatives and husbands have eaten. Avoid brahmanas whose minds are such that they are always attached to sacrifices, studying, officiating at sacrifices and teaching and those who subsist on whatever comes without asking for it. O Duhsaha! Always avoid a kshatriya who is engaged in
donations, studying and sacrifices and who ensures his subsistence through taxes or bearing arms. Avoid a blameless vaishya who follows the three qualities mentioned earlier 562 and who earns subsistence through animal husbandry, trade and agriculture. O yaksha! Avoid a shudra who donates and performs sacrifices and sustains himself by serving brahmanas and the others. If there is a household where the householder ensures his subsistence through acts that are in conformity with the shruti and smriti texts, if his wife follows him in all this, if sons worship preceptors, gods and the father and if the wife worships the husband, how can there be fear from Alakshmi 563 in such a house? O yaksha! You are incapable of glancing towards a house that is always smeared and sprinkled with water during sandhya and where offerings of flowers are made. Lakshmi serves the house where the beds are not seen by the sun, where fire and water are always present and where the sun and lamps offer light. You cannot find refuge in a house where there are bulls, sandalwood, veenas, mirrors, honey and ghee and where copper vessels are used for poison. A house where the trees are full of thorns, where nishpava creepers grow, 564 where a widow has remarried and where there is a termite hill—that immediately becomes your temple. You will reside in a house where there are five men, three women and three cows and where the fire is kindled in the darkness. O yaksha! You will quickly dry up a house where there are two sheep, 565 three cows, five buffaloes, six horses, seven elephants and one goat. You are promised refuge in a place where shovels, sickles, baskets, plates and vessels are strewn around. O yaksha! When women sit on mortars, pestles or udumbura wood and converse with each other while relieving themselves, they are doing you a good turn. O Duhsaha! As you will, roam around freely in a house where ripe and unripe grain are winnowed and threshed together and where the sacred texts are shown disrespect. A house where fire is offered on a plate, the lid of a vessel or the tip of a ladle, is an infinitely wicked place. Resort to it. O yaksha! When there are human bones in a house, or where a dead body is kept for a day and a night, that is your abode and also that of other rakshasas. You will instantly serve men who eat a dead relative’s pinda and drink his water, without first offering these to sapindas and sahodakas. 566 Avoid houses where there are padmas, mahapadmas, cows that eat sweet cakes, bulls and white elephants. 567 Frequent houses where the gods are without weapons, but men wield weapons, without there being a battle. But avoid temples where men worship gods. Do not go to houses when the inhabitants of the city and the countryside observe great festivities in their houses, as used to be the practice earlier. Those who fan themselves with fans meant for winnowing, bathe with water poured from pots, bathe using the water that drips from their garments, or with water sprinkled with the tips of the nails—they are bereft of auspicious signs. 568 You must associate with those. You should not associate with men who follow the good conduct and ordinances appropriate for the place, their lineage and their dharma; those who meditate and offer oblations, worshipping the gods; and those who properly observe the rites of purification in the world.’ Brahma told Duhsaha this and immediately vanished.”’
