91. Harold Laski, “Foundations, Universities, and Research,” in H. Laski, The Dangers of Obedience and Other Essays (London: Harper and Brothers, 1930), 150– 177. Laski laments the rise of positivism in the study of society and politics as well as the foundation-sponsored “study group” method that mimicked the methods of the natural sciences.
92. William G. McLoughlin, Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978), 169–170.
93. M. Richter, “T. H. Green and His Audience,” Review of Politics 18, no. 4 (1956): 444–572; M. Richter, The Politics of Conscience (London: Weidenfeld and Richardson, 1964).
94. McLoughlin, Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform, 152.
95. Ibid., 153.
96. Rockefeller, Memoirs, 21; Frederick T. Gates, Chapters in My Life (New York: Free Press, 1977), 161.
97. Rockefeller, Memoirs, 11.
98. Gates, Chapters in My Life, 161–162.
99. Ibid., 163.
100. David Nasaw, Andrew Carnegie (New York: Penguin, 2006), 715–716.
101. Laski, “Foundations, Universities, and Research,” 163.
102. Ibid., 174.
103. Chernow, Titan, 483.
104. Ibid., 485.
105. Ibid., 486.
106. Louis R. Harlan, Separate and Unequal (New York: Athenaeum, 1968), 80.
107. Quotation of William H. Baldwin Jr., president of the GEB; cited by James D. Anderson, “Philanthropic Control Over Private Black Higher Education,” in Robert F. Arnove, ed., Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1980), 155.
108. Ibid., 151.
109. W. E. B. Du Bois, Autobiography of W. E. B. Du Bois (New York: International Publishers, 1968), 230.
110. John H. Stanfield, Philanthropy and Jim Crow in American Social Science (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1985), 142.
111. Anderson, “Philanthropic Control Over Private Black Higher Education,” 156.
112. Stuart Anderson, Race and Rapprochement: Anglo-Saxonism and Anglo-American Relations, 1895–1904 (London: Associated University Presses, 1981), 18, 23.
113. Wall, Andrew Carnegie, 695.
114. Sondra Herman, Eleven Against War: Studies in American Internationalist Thought, 1898–1921 (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1969).
3. LAYING THE FOUNDATIONS OF GLOBALISM, 1930–1945
1. The epigraph to this chapter is from an internal memo by Joseph Willits, director of the division of social sciences, Rockefeller Foundation (January 6, 1942); box 270, folders 3219/3221.
2. Simon Bromley picks up the story in 1945, whereas this study shows that such views were held by influential Americans much earlier in the twentieth century; Bromley, American Power and the Prospects for International Order (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2008).
3. Nicholas Murray Butler, Across the Busy Years, vol. 1 (New York: Charles Scribners’ Sons, 1939). In several respects, Barrow’s analysis of the institutionalization of the corporate ideal in the American university system and the strategic role of Carnegie and Rockefeller philanthropy very nicely dovetails with the present work; see Clyde W. Barrow, Universities and the Capitalist State (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990).
4. Robert F. Arnove, ed., Philanthropy and Cultural Imperialism (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1980); Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge (Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan University Press, 1989).
5. William Leuchtenberg, “Progressivism and Imperialism,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 39 (1953): 483–504.
6. Ronald Radosh, Prophets on the Right (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1975); liberal internationalists effectively discredited opponents of U.S. interventionism as “outside the [new] consensus, or the mainstream… as subversive of the existing order” (14).
7. E. S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream (New York: Hill and Wang, 1982).
8. N. M. Butler, Across the Busy Years, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribners’ Sons, 1940).
9. David C. Engerman, “New Society, New Scholarship: Soviet Studies Programmes in Interwar America,” Minerva 37 (1999): 25–43.
10. William C. Olson and A. J. R. Groom, International Relations Then and Now (London: Routledge, 1991), 75–76.
11. Rockefeller Foundation Archives (hereafter RFA), Tarrytown, NY, RG1.1 series 200 200S Yale University–International Relations, box 416, folder 4941; funding notes, 17 May 1935 and 16 May 1941.
12. See Yale Institute Annual Report (1942), in RFA, RG1.1 Series 200 200S Yale University–International Relations, Box 417, Folder 4957.
13. RFA; see interoffice memo by J. H. Willits, 29.2.40; letter, Frederick S. Dunn (Director of YIIS) to Willits, 2.6.41; letter, Dunn to Willits, 11.8.44; and YIIS annual report, 1938–39, 3; all in boxes 416 and 417, folders 4944, 4947, 4955. See also William T. R. Fox, The American Study of International Relations (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1966) for the policy-oriented character of YIIS, of which Fox was a member.
14. Olson and Groom, International Relations Then and Now, 99.
15. RFA, box 416, folder 4944, Memorandum, “Yale University—Research in International Relations,” 6 March 1940.
16. Figures compiled from annual reports and other internal RF sources.
17. RFA, box 416, folder 4944, Memo, 29 February 1940. According to Fox, Dunn’s motive, to advance practical knowledge to enhance U.S. national security, was what ensured foundation support. The RF’s director of the Division of Social Sciences, Joseph H. Willits, wrote that Spykman’s ideas showed wisdom, maturity, “hard-headedness, realism and scholarly standards”; cited in Olson and Groom, International Relations Then and Now, 50–51.
18. YIIS Annual Report (1942), 3–4.
19. Ibid., 1–4 (italics added).
20. RFA, memorandum, “A Security Policy for Postwar America,” 8 March 1945, in box 417, folder 4948.
21. See review, “The Gyroscope of Pan-Americanism,” November 1943, in box 416, folder 4946. Written by the historian Samuel Flagg Bemis, it was entitled The Latin American Policy of the United States and was published in 1943. Bemis claimed that U.S. policy toward Latin America was a benevolent, “protective imperialism.” It was, he continued, “an imperialism against imperialism.”
22. This was a veiled reference to the confidential work of the Council on Foreign Relations for the State Department. See RFA, box 417, folder 4947; see Dunn’s covering letter to Willits, 23 December 1943.
23. Ibid.
24. RFA, see Annual Report (1941–1942), 18–19, 25.
25. RFA, see YIIS Annual Report (1945–1946).
26. RFA, Annual Report (1943), 14–15.
27. Louis Morton, “National Security and Area Studies,” Journal of Higher Education, 34, no. 2 (1963): 142–147.
28. See David Reynolds, Britannia Overruled (London: Longman, 1991), 173; also Olson and Groom, International Relations Then and Now, 100.
29. John A. Thompson, “Another Look at the Downfall of ‘Fortress America,’” Journal of American Studies, 26, no. 3 (1992): 401.
30. See Paulo Ramos, The Role of the YIIS in the Construction of the United States National Security Ideology, 1935–1951 (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Manchester, 2003), 267.
31. RFA, box 416, folder 4945; Lambert Davis (Harcourt, Brace) to George W. Gray (RF). (So influential that it was also produced in Braille).
32. Ibid.
33. Olson and Groom, International Relations Then and Now, 99.
34. Ramos, The Role of the YIIS, 240.
35. Spykman, cited in ibid., 242.
36. Ibid., 243.
37. Ibid., appendix C, 372.
38. Ibid., 243.
39. RFA, box 417, folder 4948; “Radio Program Notice,” 6 April 1945.
40. Olson and Groom, International Relations Then and Now, 106–111.
41. Olson and Groom claim that the publication of this journal was “one of the most significant events in the history of the field [of international relations].”
Ibid., 118.
42. Earle was an academic at Columbia and at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton. During World War II, he served in the Office of Strategic Services, among other agencies. In 1951, he served as political consultant to Dwight Eisenhower. He died in 1954.
43. “Notes on the American Committee for International Studies,” April 5, 1941, 1; in Carnegie Corporation (hereafter CC) Papers, box 18. The ACIS functioned from 1936 to 1941 and consisted of four institutional members—CFR, FPA, IPR, and the U.S. National Committee on International Intellectual Cooperation—and of nine academics appointed by the Social Science Research Council. Later, the ACIS was designated by the SSRC as its Committee on International Relations.
44. Edward Mead Earle, “National Security and Foreign Policy,” Yale Review 29 (March 1940); Edward Mead Earle, “The Threat to American Security,” Yale Review 30 (March 1941).
45. Earle, “The Threat to American Security.”
46. Alfred Vagts, “War and the Colleges,” American Military Institute, document no. 4 (1940); Vagts, “Ivory Towers Into Watch Towers,” The Virginia Quarterly 17, no. 2 (Spring 1941).
47. “Notes on the American Committee for International Studies,” 5 April 1941, 1–2; CC Grant Files, box 18.
48. Edward Mead Earle, “The Future of American Foreign Policy,” New Republic (November 8, 1939); Edward Mead Earle, “American Military Policy and National Security,” Political Science Quarterly 53 (March 1938); Edward Mead Earle, “Political and Military Strategy of the United States,” Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science (1940).
49. Record of Interview (by telephone), Frederick P. Keppel (president, CC) and Earle, 20 December 1937, in CC Grant Files, Institute for Advanced Study. “Study of the Military and Foreign Policies of the US through 1943”; letter, Earle to Keppel, 29 November 1938; all in box 178.
50. Letter, Earle to Keppel, 29 November 1938, 3. In all, up to 1942 only Earle’s work received over $56,000 from the CC. See the minutes of its Executive Committee for November 7, 1940; March 5, 1941; and October 3, 1941 for details. Peffer is way off the mark when he suggests that Earle received only $35,000.
51. Letter, Page to Charles Dollard, 23 October 1941, CC Grant Files, box 178. Page was a public relations pioneer at AT&T in the 1930s and 1940s. His father was Walter Hines Page, a onetime U.S. ambassador to Britain.
52. See Earle’s report, “Memorandum Regarding Problems of Morale, Recreation, and Health in Connection with American Naval and Air Bases in the Caribbean Area,” May 1941; CC Grant Files, box 135.
53. Record of Interviews, Keppel and Earle, 17 October 1941; and Dollard and Earle, 17 December 1941; CC Grant Files, box 135.
54. Letter, Frank Aydelotte (IAS) to Robert M. Lester (secretary, CC), 16 December 1940; CC Grant Files, box 178.
55. Letter, Frank Aydelotte to Walter A. Jessup (president, CC), 26 January 1942. The syllabus, entitled “War and National Policy: A Syllabus,” was published by Farrar and Rinehart; CC Grant Files, box 178.
56. “Report on Grant,” by Frank Aydelotte to Robert M. Lester, 8 August 1942; CC Grant Files, box 178.
57. Ibid.
58. William T. R. Fox, “Interwar International Relations Research: The American Experience,” World Politics 2 (October 1949): 78; Olson and Groom, International Relations Then and Now, 99; Ken Booth and Eric Herring, Keyguide to Information Sources in Strategic Studies (London: Mansell, 1994), 16.
59. Letter, Earle to Sir Charles Oman (All Souls’ College, Oxford), 4 January 1944; Earle Papers, box 36, at Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University.
60. The third edition of Sea Power was published in 1968 and the fifth edition of Layman’s Guide in 1965. See Earle’s report on the seminar 1942–1943 in CC Grant Files, box 178; Brodie’s entry in Who Was Who, vol. 7.
61. N. Peffer, “Memorandum on Carnegie Grants in the Field of International Relations,” 17 April 1942, 3–4, in CC Grant Files, box 187.
62. William T. R. Fox, The American Study of International Relations (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1966), 27.
63. Inderjeet Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004); Lawrence Shoup and William Minter, Imperial Brain Trust (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977); Max Holland, “Citizen McCloy,” Wilson Quarterly 15, no. 3 (1991): 22–42.
64. CC, New York, Grant Files, box 187: International Relations; Rare Book and Manuscript Collection, Butler Library, Columbia University; N. Peffer, “Memorandum on Carnegie Grants in the Field of International Relations” (April 17, 1942). The journal, Foreign Affairs, had 15,000 subscribers by 1939.
65. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust; Parmar, Think Tanks and Power in Foreign Policy; R. D. Schulzinger, The Wise Men of Foreign Affairs (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), 61.
66. RFA, RG1 Projects series 100 International; box 97, folder 100S, CFR 1936–37; WH Mallory (CFR) to EE Day (RF), 11 January 1936. By 1945, there were several groups approaching the completion of their deliberations, including the Group on Legal Problems of Reconstruction and the Cartel Group. Other groups included U.S. Soviet Relations, The Export of Technology, and Compulsory Military Training. See RG1 100 International, box 97 folder 100S, CFR 1945, Application for funds, W. H. Mallory (CFR) to J. H. Willits (RF), 15 January 1945.
67. The group included the economists Alvin Hansen and Jacob Viner, the historians W. L. Langer and James Shotwell, and the lawyers and businessmen John Foster Dulles and Norman Davis.
68. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust, 120–122.
69. W. G. Bundy, The Council on Foreign Relations and Foreign Affairs (New York: CFR, 1994), 22.
70. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust; G. William Domhoff, The Power Elite and the State (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1990); Inderjeet Parmar, “The Issue of State Power: A Case Study of the Council on Foreign Relations,” Journal of American Studies 29, no. 1 (1995): 73–95. The Moscow Agreement of October 1943 was the first meeting of the three big powers—the United States, Russia, and Britain—during World War II. It set up the European Advisory Commission that worked out the basic principles for the treatment of Germany: the destruction of German military power and of the Nazi party, the punishment of war criminals, the zones of control, and the arrangements for reparations payments.
71. RFA, RG1 Project 100 International; box 99, folder 897; letter, Bowman to Willits, 23 November 1943. The CFR memoranda had dealt with reparations (which the State Department had nothing on at all), forms of postwar aid to Russia, and on confederation in Russia.
72. Kirk was a member of the Yale Institute of International Studies, a War-Peace Studies Project research secretary, and an independent consultant to the State Department. RFA, memorandum of conversation, Kirk and Willits, 22 November 1943, in same file as Bowman’s letter, 23 November 1943.
73. RFA, Interview, Pasvolsky and Willits; 3 December 1943, in same file as Bowman’s letter, 23 November 1943.
74. Shoup and Minter, Imperial Brain Trust; RFA, letter, Edward Stettinius (undersecretary of state) to J. H. Willits (RF), 24 November 1943, in same file as Bowman’s letter.
75. RFA, Fosdick to Mallory, 8 October 1946, as for Bowman, but folder 898.
76. Bundy, The Council on Foreign Relations and Foreign Affairs, 22.
77. RFA, Tracy B. Kittredge to Joseph H. Willitts, 12 November 1940. RFA, RG1 Project series 100 International, box 99, folder 100S, CFR–War Problems, 1939–1940, letter, Tracy B. Kittredge to Joseph H. Willitts, 12 November 1940.
78. RFA Annual Report (1940), 61. Rockefeller also funded Harold Lasswell’s research on content analysis at the Library of Congress, Douglas Waples’s press studies at Chicago, and Paul Lazarfeld’s radio research at Columbia, among other mass communications projects; see Christopher Simpson, Science of Coercion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), 22.
79. RFA, RG1.1 series 200 200R Princeton University–Public Opinion, box 270, folder 3216; Memorandum, 5 December 1939.
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br /> 80. RFA, box 270, folder 3216; funding note, 12 July 1940.
81. RFA, box 270, folder 3216; “A Proposed Study of the Effect of the War on Public Opinion in the United States,” attached to a letter from Cantril to John Marshall (Rockefeller Foundation), 13 November 1939.
82. RFA, box 270, folder 3218, “Application for Renewal of Public Opinion Study,” attached to a letter to John Marshall. RFA, box 270, folder 3216; letter, Cantril to Marshall, 28 November 1939.
83. RFA, box 270, folder 3218; letter, Cantril to Marshall, 9 September 1940.
84. RFA, box 271, folder 3228, “Comparison of Opinions of Those Who Do and Do Not Listen to the President’s Radio Talks: Confidential Report,” by Hadley Cantril, 17 September 1941.
85. RFA, box 271, folder 3228, “The People Who Would Join a ‘Keep-Out-of-War’ Party: Confidential Report,” by Hadley Cantril, 21 November 1941.
86. RFA, RG1.1 series 200S subseries 200; RF report on Cantril’s work, “The Changing Attitude Toward War,” 16, January 1941.
87. RFA, box 271, folder 3229, “Confidential Report to Rockefeller Foundation on Work of the Office of Public Opinion Research of Princeton University from 1940 Through 1943,” 14 December 1943, by Hadley Cantril.
88. RFA, box 270, folder 3220, Interview, Cantril, Gallup, and Marshall, 28 May 1941.
89. RFA, box 270, folder 3221, letter, Cantril to Marshall, 30 April 1942.
90. RFA, box 270, folder 3224, Interview, Cantril and Marshall, 29 January 1943.
91. RFA, box 270, folder 3225, letter, Cantril to Marshall, 4 October 1943.
92. RFA, box 270, folder 3225, Interview, Cantril and Marshall 16 December 1943. See, for example, Franklin D Roosevelt Presidential Library (New York), PPF 8229–Hadley Cantril; letter from FDR to Cantril, 12 November 1942. For Cantril’s political loyalty to FDR, see letter by David K. Niles to Grace Tully, 11 November 1942, in the same file.
93. RFA, box 270, folders 3219, 3221; letter, Marshall to Cantril, 21 March 1941; and Internal Memo by J. Willits, 6 January 1942.
94. RFA, box 270, folder 3218; letter, Evarts Scudder of CDAAA to Marshall, 27 November 1940, thanking him for the report. Cantril also supplied reports to several other special-interest groups, such as the National Association of Manufacturers, trades unions, and farm organizations. See RFA, box 270, folder 3224, Memorandum, “Proposed Work of Office…” 10 February 1943. The CDAAA was, itself, an ad hoc group of CFR members led by William Allen White (editor of the Kansas Emporia Gazette) at the suggestion of FDR; see Michael Wala, The Council on Foreign Relations and American Foreign Policy in the Early Cold War (Providence: Berghahn Books, 1994).
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