by Frank Ryan
RNAi (RNA interference) 187–9
role in gene extrapolation to proteins first explored 94–5, 96, 98, 131–5
single-stranded helix 94
siRNAs (small interactive RNA molecules) 186–7
tRNA (transport/transfer RNA) 98, 187
variance in amount of in different cells 94
viral genomes and 157, 159, 160, 173–4, 183–4 see also retrovirus
RNA Tie Club 96
Robert Koch Institute, Berlin 15
Roberts, Alice 269–70
Roberts, Richard J. 131, 132, 133, 135
Roche 246
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, New York 5, 6, 13, 15–16, 18, 19, 21, 22–3, 24, 25, 30, 31, 33
Roebroeks, Wil 256, 272
Rothberg, Jonathan 246
rubella, vaccinations against 109
Rudbeck Laboratory 167, 168
Russia 238
Rutgers University, New Jersey 5, 6, 32
Rutherford, Lord Ernest 51
San people 215, 290
Sanger, Frederick 112, 121, 127
Sanger Centre, UK 127
Sanger sequencing 121
Sardinia 219–20, 289
Sayre, Anne 74–6, 78, 90
Schrödinger, Erwin 5, 38–9
What Is Life? 39–41, 44, 46, 49, 50, 52–3, 61–2, 84, 90, 91, 93, 125
“What is Life?” lecture series 38–9
Science 19, 127, 128, 170, 237
sea shells, human ancestry and collection of 216, 230–1, 232, 255–6
Seeds, Willy 59, 89
sense strand of DNA 177, 186, 191, 194, 199
sequencing, genome/DNA 120–3, 124–36, 167, 198, 202, 246–7, 258, 270–1, 278, 284–5, 287, 288–9, 302
automated 121, 123, 125, 127, 246, 285
first complete genome of an organism (bacteriophage virus—ΦX174) 121
first completely sequenced genome of a bacterium (Haemophilus influenzae) 126
first insect genomic sequence (fruit fly) 126
human ancestors and 198, 202, 246–7, 258, 270–1, 278, 284–5, 287, 288–9, 302
human genome first sequenced 122–3, 124–36, 170, 193, 281, 293
mutation frequency for whole genomes 284–5
Neanderthal genome 258, 270–1, 278, 288–9
Sanger sequencing 121
shotgun sequencing 125–6, 127, 302
whole genome 284–5, 287, 288–90 see also Human Genome Project
serial endosymbiosis theory (SET) 152–3
Shakespeare, William 90, 207–8
Sharp, Phillip Allen 131, 132, 133, 135
Shigella (dysentery bug) 12
shotgun sequencing 125–6, 127, 302
Shreeve, James 126
Sia, Richard P. 16
Siberia, human ancestry in 201, 202, 207, 235, 240, 251, 267–8, 270–1, 273–4
sickle-cell disease 97–8, 107, 141
Siemens 42
Sima de los Huesos (“pit of bones”), Burgos, Spain 264, 278
SINEs (virus-like entity) 164, 170, 195
Smith, John Maynard 151
SNPs (“single nucleotide polymorphisms”) (“snips”) 198–201, 203–7, 211–15, 219, 241, 258, 274, 284, 285, 289, 301
Snyder, Michael 295
Spain, human ancestry in 230, 239, 255–6, 276, 278–9
Spikins, Penny 264
splicing 132, 133–5, 187, 190
Spondylus shell 255–6
St. Mary's Hospital, London 19
Stanford University 190, 211, 295
Staphylococcus aureus (coccoid germ) 10
STAT2 (genetic region) 269
stem cells 116, 194
Stokes, Alexander (Alec) 75, 76, 88, 90
Stone Age 220, 256, 264, 267, 293
Stoneking, Mark 213–14, 218
streptomycin 32
Stringer, Chris 220, 231–2, 251, 252, 259–60, 269–70
sulfonamide drugs 20
Sulston, John 185
Sunday Times 269
symbiosis
behavioral symbioses 149
co-evolution and 158–64, 169, 282
concept of 147–55
cyanobacteria evolution and 151–2
discovery of 147–8
first symbiotic union 153
genetic engineering and 299
genetic symbiogenesis 149, 157
genetic symbiosis 150–1
genomic creativity and 145, 178
holobiont/holobiontic union and 148–50, 151, 153, 155, 159, 162, 164, 205, 222, 266
horizontal gene transfer and 150, 299
human ancestry and 282
metabolic symbioses 149
mitochondria, symbiotic origin of (SET) 152–5, 205–6
mutualism, benefits of 148–50, 160
mycorrhiza 148
parasitism and 148, 160
rhizobia bacteria 150–1
serial endosymbiosis theory (SET) 152–3
symbiology 148
symbionts 148
symbiotic island 150
virus–human 157–64, 169, 173, 282
syncytin 165–6, 169
syncytiotrophoblast 165
syncytium 165
synthetic biology 303
Synthetics Genomics 303
Tabun Cave, Palestine 235
tandem repeats 285–7
Tanzania 217
Tatum, Edward L 93, 99, 130
taxonomy 248
tetranucleotide hypothesis 18, 79, 80
thalidomide 109, 118
The Cancer Genome Atlas Project (TCGA) 111
The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR) 125–6
thermoluminescence 229, 234, 236
thymine 17–18, 69, 77, 80, 81, 87, 91, 94, 95, 102, 105–6, 107, 131, 199, 247
thyrotoxicosis 19–20, 31
Tibetans: “hypoxia pathway gene” EPAS1 277–8
Time 38
Todd, Doctor 33
tools, stone 197, 198, 211, 220, 222, 227, 228, 230, 249, 251, 254, 255–6, 263, 264, 279
transposons 195, 222
Trinkaus, Erik 257, 264
trophoblast 165
trypsin 22
Tsybankov, Alexander 273
tuberculosis 10–11, 21, 32, 61, 300
Tyrrhenian Sea 289
UK Biobank 295
University of Arizona 269
University of Athens 226–7
University of Berkeley, California 47, 48, 49, 146, 213, 218
University of Birmingham 47
University of California, at Irvine 222, 241
University of Chicago 40, 301
University of Colorado 272
University of Copenhagen 198
University of Florida 215
University of Illinois 131
University of Leeds 46, 52, 68
University of Leicester 208
University of Reading 265
University of Sheffield 112–13, 131, 135
Upper Pleistocene 277
Uppsala University, Sweden 167–9
uracil 17–18, 94, 95, 131, 247
Vendrely, Roger 95
Venter, J. Craig
Celera Genomics and 125–6, 127, 130, 303
genetic engineering and 292, 302–4
human genome sequencing and 125–6, 127, 130, 289, 302
J. Craig Venter Institute and 303–4
Life at the Speed of Light 292, 302
personal genome sequencing and 289
Villa, Paolo 256, 272
Villarreal, Luis B. 164, 222, 291
Vindija Cave, Croatia 268
Virolution (Ryan) 145, 167
viruses 10, 16
bacteriophages/phages see bacteriophages/phages
co-evolution of 158–9, 160
death of 157
definition of 156–7
discovery of DNA and 27–9, 36, 41, 42, 43, 92
DNA and RNA based genomes 157
fi
rst complete genome of an organism sequenced (bacteriophage virus, ΦX174) 121
genetic symbiogenesis and 157–60, 162, 222 see also retroviruses and symbiosis, genetic
genome coding of 156–7
introns and exons discovery and 131–2
invasion of human genome 120
life cycles 157
mutations 157
Pasteur and 11
retrovirus see retrovirus
viral gene expression in human cells, tissues and organs, searching for 167–70
see also under individual virus name
vitamin D deficiency 267
VNTR (variable number of tandem repeats) 286–7
Vries, Hugo De 14–15, 106, 139–40
Waddington, Conrad H. 189
Waksman, Selman 32
Wansunt road, Kent, Neanderthal hand axes found at 264
Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri 264
Watson, Elizabeth 56
Watson, James Dewey
autobiography 44, 59–60, 70, 82
background 40–1
Cavendish Laboratory and 51, 52, 55–8, 60, 90
Chargaff and 80–1
Crick and 50, 52, 53, 55–6, 58, 61–5, 76, 96
Delbruck and 43–4, 57–8
DNA extrapolation to proteins, investigates 96, 98
Europe, first travels to 44–5
Franklin and 70, 76, 77, 78, 82–3, 84–5
Gamow and 95, 96
Harvard and 98
Kalckar and 45, 55–6
Luria and 43–4, 57, 58, 60–1, 63
Maaløe and 45
Merck Fellowship, National Research Council 44, 56, 60–1
NIH Human genome Project and 122–3, 125, 126–7, 289
Pauling's discovery of the “alpha helix” and 56–7, 69–70
Pauling's triple-helix concept and 82–3, 84–6
Research fellowship, Indiana University, Bloomington 40–1
returns to US after running out of funding 93–4
RNA Tie Club and 96
Schrödinger's Inspires 40–1, 46, 50, 52, 125
structure of DNA, role in discovery of 34, 40–1, 43–6, 50, 51, 52, 53, 55, 56–8, 59, 60–5, 68, 69, 76–7, 78, 80–2, 84–90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 99, 102, 112, 122, 294
Wilkins and 45–6, 47, 51, 56, 57, 58, 59, 72, 76, 77, 78, 82–3, 84–5
Willy Seeds and 59, 60
X-ray crystallography, first comes across 45–6, 51, 56, 72
Zoological Station, Naples, attends Wilkins lecture at 45–6, 56, 72
Weigle, Jean 56
Wellcome Trust 123, 127
Wells, H. G. 262
Wesselingh, Dr. Frank P. 231
Western Europe 197–8, 239, 269, 288, 301
Wilkins, Eithne 48
Wilkins, Maurice 45–9, 50, 51, 56, 57, 58, 59, 68, 70, 72–6, 77–8, 82, 83, 84, 85, 88, 90, 125
Wilkins, Patricia 48–9
Willerslev, Eske 202–3
Wilson, Allan 213–15, 218, 221
Wimmer, Eckard 156, 304
Winogradsky, Sergei 5
Wollman, Élie 99–100
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 96
Wright, Sewall 40, 140
Würm (Ice Age) 234
Xist gene 190, 191–2
X-ray crystallography 45–6, 47, 50–1, 54, 56–7, 58, 60, 62–3, 71, 73–4, 82, 85, 88, 90, 91
X-ray diffraction 45, 46, 50, 51–2, 54, 57, 60, 67–8, 70, 72, 73, 74, 78, 89, 90
X-ray spectrometer 52
Ycas, Martynas 96
Y-MRCA (earliest detectable common male ancestry) 219–20
York University 264
Zilhão, João 255–6, 257
Zoological Station, Naples 45–6, 56, 68, 72
zygote (fertilized ovum) 113, 115, 117, 172, 174
Many scientific colleagues have contributed generously to my thoughts on the human genome over the last two decades, as have my audiences in the lectures I have given on various aspects of this fascinating theme. I would in particular like to thank the kindness and generosity of Erik Larsson and his colleagues at Uppsala, and Katerina Douka at the Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, each for reasons that will become obvious in the text. I would like to thank my UK publisher, Myles Archibald of HarperCollins, who encouraged the development of the idea. My thanks also to my UK editor, Julia Koppitz, and my agent, Jonathan Pegg, each of whom have long been wonderfully enthusiastic and supportive. A new edition of a book always heralds a new adventure. For this exciting US adventure, I acknowledge and thank Steven L. Mitchell, who welcomed me to the fold of Prometheus Books. It was a pleasure to work with editor Melissa Raé Shofner, whose attention to detail was scrupulous and impressive. Finally, may I thank in advance the publicists, Jake Bonar and Cheryl Quimba, who promise their own lively contribution.
