Figure 5.5. The point-to-point (a), hub-and-spoke (b), and circular (c) itineraries provide three examples of tourism itineraries. There are many variations on these patterns that are, to some extent, dependent on the available transport system for the destination.
A variation on the point-to-point is the hub-and-spoke itinerary. This involves travel from home to a destination. That destination then becomes a base for visiting other destinations, each time returning to the first destination before returning home. For example, the Shannon International Airport in Ireland provides international tourists access to the country’s west coast. According to the Tourism Ireland website, although it is not a primary attraction in itself, “Shannon Town is a vibrant place and a good base from which to explore the delights of Clare and Limerick.”12 In particular, the Shannon Region includes Ireland’s leading tourism attraction: the Cliffs of Moher. In this case, movement is interspersed with experience.
Box 5.2. Experience: What Do You Mean, Wednesday?
I think everyone has a travel disaster (or at least near-disaster) story. Mine happened over ten years ago now, but I will always remember it. My husband and I had just moved to Columbia, Missouri. I immediately started a new job, but my husband, who was working on his PhD, took off for the Black Hills for a summer of fieldwork. By the beginning of July, we hadn’t seen each other in about six weeks. I was able to take a few vacation days around the Fourth of July holiday so that I could spend a week in the field with him. I was really looking forward to it. I didn’t know it at the time, but my husband had splurged to surprise me with a night at a nice bed and breakfast after I arrived in Rapid City, South Dakota.
Columbia only has a small airport with very limited service, so most people would either drive to St. Louis or Kansas City to catch flights. I was scheduled to leave out of Kansas City around midday on Friday, fly to Denver and catch a connection to Rapid City. I didn’t want to leave my car at the airport for a week, and I found out about a shuttle service that would pick me up at my house and deliver me to the Kansas City airport. It was only about a two-hour drive, but the shuttle ended up picking me up around seven o’clock in the morning in order to pick up other passengers and meet everyone’s departure times. I don’t normally eat breakfast, so I just got up, checked with the airline to make sure everything was running on schedule, and left. After the shuttle dropped me off, I went to check in and the ticket agent told me that I wasn’t going to make my connection. The flight to Denver was now delayed. It wasn’t weather-related. It wasn’t mechanical. In fact, I don’t think I ever knew why. So I asked when was the next flight to Rapid City. She calmly told me that they could not get me there until Wednesday.
What do you mean, Wednesday? It was Friday. I was going to have to leave Rapid City the following Friday! I asked if they could make arrangements for me to get there on another airline. No, my ticket was with them; I would have to buy a new ticket. What was I supposed to do for five days? Was the airline going to put me up in a hotel, give me food vouchers? Of course not. I was basically stranded in Kansas City. I was getting ready to get a cab and pay whatever astronomical fee it was going to cost to go back home when I finally got ahold of my husband in the field. He told me to get to Denver, and we’d figure things out from there. Because the agent was unable to tell me when, exactly, my flight was actually going to leave, I went straight to the gate to wait. On the other side of security, it was literally just the gates. No bathrooms, no restaurants, no vending machines, not even a water fountain. And my flight left six hours late. There was no food on the plane, and by the time I arrived in Denver, all of the vendors were closed for the night.
After I called from Kansas City, my husband left his field site in South Dakota and drove all day to get to Denver. I don’t know what he had to do to get there, but he arrived within a half hour of me. I literally hadn’t eaten anything all day, so we stopped at the first twenty-four-hour diner we could find and then crashed at the motel next door. I finally got to South Dakota Saturday evening and spent the next few days of my “vacation” on the phone, on hold, long distance, trying to reach the airline’s customer service. I suspected that my return flight had been canceled since I didn’t take their Wednesday Rapid City flight. I was right, and they tried to convince me I needed to purchase a new return ticket—for $2,000! I finally managed to get them to put me back on the flight, but I was still worried that I wasn’t going to be able to get home. Needless to say, it was an extremely stressful trip.
Afterwards, I wrote several letters of complaint. In return, I was awarded a $75 airline inconvenience voucher that I never used. It didn’t come close to the $175 bed and breakfast reservation that we lost or the money we spent in gas driving to and from Denver. And it certainly didn’t compensate me for my “inconvenience.” The next year, I decided to make the twelve-hour drive, by myself, just to avoid the hassles of flying.
—Kristin
The circular itinerary is the pattern most dependent on transportation, as travel is distinctly part of the tourism experience. In this itinerary, tourists travel from home to one destination and then another (and perhaps another) for varying lengths of time before returning home. At one end of the tourist spectrum, drifters and explorers such as backpackers may follow a circular itinerary as they utilize public transportation systems like trains or buses to travel from destination to destination. At the other end of the spectrum, a common pattern for organized mass tourists is to follow a circular itinerary on a charter bus tour of multiple destinations, possibly even in multiple countries. Cruises are the ultimate transportation-as-tourism experience (see box 5.3). However, it must be noted that for tourists who do not live near a deepwater port, their tourism process still involves movement to and from the terminal port.
Box 5.3. In-Depth: The Cruise to Nowhere
The “cruise to nowhere” is an interesting case in the geography of tourism. Cruises are perhaps the most conspicuous example of how the mode of transportation and the act of travel can be more important than the destination (i.e., any ports of call) itself. Moreover, in the case of the cruise to nowhere, there is no destination. The entire itinerary involves sailing to and from the port of origin. In some cases, these are localized experiences that may be river-based day trips or overnight excursions. These experiences may have a specific purpose or theme, such as gaming and gambling or a musical concert.
However, most of the major international cruise lines now offer a cruise to nowhere as well, which are typically oceangoing experiences that last around three days. For example, Carnival is one of the many cruise lines that offer this type of experience. The company’s website suggests:
Where’s the best place for you to spend a few fun-filled days? Nowhere! A Carnival “Cruise-to-Nowhere” is the perfect way to get away for a couple of days. It’s also a fantastic opportunity to sample everything that makes our cruises so great, including: delicious dining options, luxurious spas, exciting entertainment, friendly casinos, duty-free shopping and—of course—superb service. No one does Nowhere better than Carnival!1
As indicated here, this type of cruise to nowhere has often been promoted as an opportunity for first-time cruise tourists to try the cruise experience without a significant commitment of time and money. It is also increasingly reflecting the fact that there is so much to do onboard today’s cruise ships and that many people don’t want to deal with the hassles, expenses, or potential safety concerns often associated with shore excursions. In the modern cruise industry, it may be argued that the destination is the ship itself. Indeed, many of the new megaships are considered floating resorts with an enormous range of amenities, including waterparks, surf simulators, rock climbing walls, full-sized basketball courts, miniature golf courses, or ice-skating rinks, in addition to the standard dining and entertainment options. This is particularly the case with the cruise to nowhere itineraries.
Yet, while most tourism experiences are distinctly and uniquely place-based, place is
entirely removed from this experience. Cruises are rarely questioned as tourism experiences—they involve the temporary movement of people from one place to another primarily based on the pursuit of pleasure. Thus, cruises are, in fact, often considered to be the epitome of mass tourism.
Discussion topic: Do you think place is a necessary component of tourism? Why or why not?
Note
1. “Cruise to Nowhere,” Carnival Corporation, accessed November 6, 2010, http://www.carnival.com/cruise-to/cruise-to-nowhere.aspx.
These models are, of course, simplifications. In reality, the possibilities are endless. Itineraries are typically shaped by factors such as the distance traveled and the mode of transport used. However, the specific itinerary often comes from individual choices about visiting a single destination or spending time at several, taking a direct route or making detours and side trips, or following the same route to and from the destination or returning by a different path.
Transportation and Destination Development
Practically, transport geography can be used to provide valuable information about specific patterns for destinations. New destinations seeking to establish tourism, as well as existing destinations looking to expand their industry, need to consider issues such as where their potential tourist markets are located and how accessible the destination is to those markets. This is entirely contingent upon the transport system.
Potential destinations must analyze the existing system to determine if the appropriate framework already exists and can be utilized for the purposes of tourism. If not, they will have to invest in the development of new networks, nodes, and/or modes. In most cases, at least part of the existing system can be used for tourism purposes. For example, a nation may have an international airport located in the capital city that can accommodate international tourists, but a regional airport or surface transport may need to be developed to connect these tourists with the country’s destination regions. In the case of Switzerland, discussed in box 5.1, Zürich is the largest city and a prominent international business center, and the Zürich airport is considered to be the country’s international gateway. Yet, many of the country’s international tourists continue on to other destinations, such as Lucerne, Interlaken, or Grindewald, via its well-developed transportation network.
Similarly, destinations targeting new markets must consider their distance from that market and the available transportation modes between the two places, with the associated travel time and cost factors. The geographic concept of distance decay indicates that demand for a product or service decreases as the distance traveled to obtain that product or service increases. In other words, if a consumer perceives that two products or services are comparable, he will choose the one that is easier to obtain. In theory, then, the increased time and cost of greater distances will decrease the desirability of a destination. However, tourism represents a special case that requires some modification of the model. Tourism demand does not “decay” immediately. In fact, demand is highest at a certain distance from the tourists’ home.13 After that point is reached, increasing distance will result in decreasing demand, unless there is a high degree of complementarity. Complementarity refers to the relationship between people in one place who have the desire for certain travel experiences and a place that has the ability to satisfy that desire.
It is also important that destinations analyze tourists’ patterns of movement and itineraries, preferences in modes, cost thresholds, and any factors that might influence their decision-making process. For example, drifters and other categories of tourists interested in niche tourism products like nature and adventure tourism, may specifically seek out undeveloped destinations and therefore have lower expectations from the transportation infrastructure (e.g., unpaved roads; see figure 5.6). However, mass tourists from the major generating regions, specifically Europe and North America, are used to a modern and efficient transportation infrastructure where they can get from one place to another quickly, comfortably, and safely. If these tourists perceive that transportation at a destination is unreliable, slow, difficult, and possibly even dangerous, they are likely to choose an alternative destination. As such, destination stakeholders may need to coordinate their efforts to increase investment in the infrastructure and regulate the provision of transportation services to create a better environment for tourism.
Figure 5.6. Wildlife tourists interested in viewing animals in their natural habitat are more willing to accept poor transportation infrastructure. (Source: Velvet Nelson)
Data on these patterns can identify transport flows and places where traffic is concentrated at a destination. This information can aid destination planners to formulate effective strategies to eliminate potential bottlenecks or alleviate problems with congestion and overcrowding during peak seasons. These solutions may include designating alternative routes, directing tourists to alternate attractions, or creating new policies such as the establishment of restricted or traffic-free zones. This will help reduce the negative impacts on the destination created by traffic and pollution and improve the visitor experience.14 Management strategies such as these will be discussed in greater detail in chapter 11.
In addition, destination stakeholders need to consider usage patterns, profitability, and competition for limited mass transportation resources due to seasonality. For most destinations, tourism is a seasonal industry with highs and lows. During the high season, mass transportation may run at capacity or in fact, over capacity. If the supply of transport services is not expanded to meet the increased demand, systems can become congested. Thus, all users experience decreased access to and quality of transportation services. For example, tourists arriving at major urban destinations are often reliant on public transportation systems due to prohibitive costs (e.g., car rental, insurance, parking, congestion charges for driving in the city center, and the like) or unfamiliarity with roads and traffic patterns. Tourists’ usage can complement commuters’ usage when they visit on weekends and holidays. However, during peak tourism seasons, typically during the summer months, tourists compete with residents. For residents, this can generate animosity toward tourists. For tourists, this can have a negative impact on their ability to visit the desired attractions and their overall satisfaction with the destination.
Conversely, mass transportation is a perishable product because on regularly scheduled routes, unsold seats “expire”—in other words, those seats are not available to be sold at another time or on a later date. Transportation systems may experience losses during the low or off tourism season. As a result, operators may need to reduce the number of scheduled routes to the destination. They may also advertise discounted fares or work with other stakeholders to offer package deals (e.g., combining transport with accommodation or activities) in an effort to increase off-season visitors.
New Directions in Research
Over the past few years, researchers have begun to explore the intersection between tourism and transport in new ways. While it is important that we continue to try to understand the patterns of where tourists are going and how they are getting there, this new research is also taking into consideration the implications of current trends in tourism on transportation and the role of tourist transport in issues of global human and environmental significance.
For example, growth in some of the tourism products discussed in chapter 3 has created new opportunities and challenges with regard to transport. In particular, both heritage and event tourism have been cited as bringing the relationship between tourism and transport even closer. There is a significant niche market of “transport enthusiasts.” Interest in appreciating historic transport has generated a demand for themed museums, exhibitions, and car shows. Interest in experiencing these modes has generated a demand for tourist trips on horse-drawn carriages, historic trains, vintage cars, gondolas, paddle steamers, and others.15 At the same time, interest in advances in transport technology has generated a demand for opportunities to experience the
newest planes or very fast trains.
Conversely, the rise of products like nature, rural, and sport tourism has at times strained the relationship between tourism and transport. These products typically involve the transfer of tourists from an urban market or a centrally located terminal node (e.g., an airport) to remote locations that are not well served by public transportation. In addition, tourists participating in various sports activities may be carrying heavy or bulky equipment, such as golf clubs, skis, surfboards, and bicycles. These items are difficult to take on public transportation, if in fact they are permitted at all. As such, these tourism products are heavily reliant on private cars. Tourists must either be able to reach the destination in their own vehicles or rent one upon their arrival at the terminal, and destination stakeholders must plan accordingly to manage vehicles in an area that is perhaps unaccustomed to high volumes of traffic.
Another new direction considers tourism, transport, and health. Although early health concerns about the faster speeds of rail travel proved to be unfounded, the increase in long-distance air transport associated with tourism has generated new risks. This can range from the comparatively mild effects of jet lag to traveler’s thrombosis, which, in the most serious cases, can result in a potentially fatal pulmonary embolism. In addition, new attention is being given to the increased levels of stress that can result from anxiety about flying, the threat of terrorism, missed flights, lost baggage, and more. While this can lead to occasional (and well-publicized) incidents of aggression or violence, it also can exacerbate existing conditions, resulting in in-flight medical emergencies. Finally, geographers have begun to study the rapid diffusion of infectious diseases, like severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), by air travel.16
An Introduction to the Geography of Tourism Page 16
