57. Timothy B. Riordan, The Plundering Time: Maryland and the English Civil War, 1645–1646 (Baltimore, Md., 2004), 32, 95–97, 131, 139, 141, 163; Md. Archives, III, 165.
58. Riordan, Plundering Time, 174, 175, 189, 211, 220ff. Further biographical details in Papenfuse et al., Biographical Dictionary.
59. Riordan, Plundering Time, 210–11, 293–95, 193–95, 206, 221. For a full accounting of the contents of Cornwallis’s plundered Cross House and their value, see Appendix, 331–34.
60. Ibid., 205, 215, 217, 210, 221, 236, 238, 253, 201, 268, 306, 185; Fausz; “Merging Worlds,” 80.
61. Krugler, English and Catholic, 164–65, 185–88, 214–23; Andrews, Colonial Period, II, 310–12. The text of the act is in Md. Archives, I, 244–47. In practice Baltimore’s toleration would ultimately extend not only to Quakers—pacifists who refused to take oaths—but also to a Jew accused of blasphemy for his views on Christ and the resurrection.
62. Krugler, English and Catholic; 183–84; Al Luchenbach, Providence 1649 (Maryland State Archives, 1995); Babette M. Levy, Early Puritanism in the Southern and Island Colonies (Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, 70, pt. 1, 1960), 130–31; Andrews, Colonial Period, II, 312, 314–17.
63. Fausz, “Merging Worlds,” 82–83; Andrews, Colonial Period, II, 318–21; Hall, ed., Narratives, 238–44, 250, 264, 266. On Calvert’s struggle to control Lewis’s passionate Catholicism: Krugler, English and Catholic, 104–5. For a detailed account of Baltimore’s adroit maneuvering in England in defense of his charter, which involved questions of the status of Parliamentary laws overseas, see ibid., chap. 8.
64. Carr et al., Cole’s World, 122, 130–31.
CHAPTER 7
The Chesapeake’s New World
1. Lorena S. Walsh, Motives of Honor, Pleasure, and Profit (Chapel Hill, N.C., 2010), 131; James Horn, Adapting to a New World: English Society in the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1994), 137, 25–31 [hereafter: New World]; James Horn, “ ‘To Parts Beyond the Seas’: Free Immigration to the Chesapeake in the Seventeenth-Century,” in Ida Altman and James Horn, eds., “To Make America”: European Emigration in the Early Modern Period (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1991), chap. 4, table 4.1.
2. Lois G. Carr, Russell R. Menard, and Lorena S. Walsh, Robert Cole’s World (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991), chap. 2; Walsh, Motives, 128–30.
3. Karen O. Kupperman, Settling With the Indians … 1580–1640 (Totowa, N.J., 1980), 188.
4. Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman, A Place In Time: Middlesex County, Virginia, 1650–1750 (New York, 1984), 40–41; Walsh, Motives, 91ff., 155–61.
5. Ann Kussmaul, Servants in Husbandry in Early Modern England (Cambridge, England, 1981), 62–63; Russell R. Menard, “British Migration to the Chesapeake Colonies in the Seventeenth-Century,” in Lois G. Carr, Philip D. Morgan, and Jean B. Russo, eds., Colonial Chesapeake Society (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1988), 114 [hereafter: Menard, “British Migration”].
6. E. A. Wrigley and R. S. Schofield, The Population History of England, 1541–1871 (Cambridge, Mass., 1981), 528, table A3.1; Horn, New World, 63, 137; Menard, “British Migration,” 102–3, 116, 125, 131; Rutman, Middlesex County, 71.
7. David Souden, “ ‘Rogues, Whores and Vagabonds’? Indentured Servant Emigrants to North America, and the Case of Mid-Seventeenth-Century Bristol,” Social History, 3 (1978), 29–34, tables 3, 4; Menard, “British Migration,” 123, 127; Horn, New World, 90, 185–87.
8. Horn, New World, 74, 62, 64; Abbot E. Smith, Colonists in Bondage: White Servitude and Convict Labor in America, 1607–1776 (Chapel Hill, N. C., 1947), 69, 71–73, chap. 4; Peter W. Coldham, “The ‘Spiriting’ of London Children to Virginia, 1648–1685,” VMHB, 83 (1975), 282–83.
9. Smith, Colonists in Bondage, 152–57, chap. 5; Butler, “British Convicts Shipped to American Colonies,” American Historical Review, 2 (1896), 16–17; CSPC, 360; Alexander Moray, “Letters Written by Mr. Moray, a Minister … February 1, 1665,” WMQ, 2nd ser., 2 (July 1922), 160.
10. James Horn, “Servant Emigration to the Chesapeake in the Seventeenth-
Century,” in Thad W. Tate and David L. Ammerman, eds., The Chesapeake in the Seventeenth Century (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1979), 53–54; David W. Galenson, White Servitude in Colonial America: An Economic Analysis (Cambridge, England, 1981), 16–17, App. A.
11. Menard, “British Migration,” 128–29; Gloria L. Main, Tobacco Colony: Life in Early Maryland, 1650–1720 (Princeton, N.J., 1982), 14; Horn, New World, 38; Hilary McD. Beckles, “A ‘Riotous and Unruly Lot’: Irish Indentured Servants and Freemen in the English West Indies, 1644–1713,” WMQ, 47 (1990), 505–20.
12. Horn, New World, 272.
13. Ibid., 138; Russell B. Menard, “The Growth of Population in the Chesapeake Colonies: A Comment,” Explorations in Economic History, 18 (1981), 402, 399; Rutman, Middlesex County, 130; Lorena S. Walsh and Russell B. Menard, “Death in the Chesapeake: Two Life Tables for Men in Early Colonial Maryland,” MHM, 69 (1974), 222; Menard, “Population, Economy, and Society in Seventeenth-Century Maryland,” MHM, 79 (1984), 71–73 [hereafter: Menard, “Population”]; Main, Tobacco Colony, 14–15.
14. Darrett B. Rutman and Anita H. Rutman, “ ‘Now Wives and Sons-in-Law’: Parental Death in a Seventeenth-Century Virginia County,” in Tate and Ammerman, eds., Chesapeake, 153, 158, 162, 167, 168; Menard, “Population,” 72; Lorena S. Walsh, “ ‘Till Death Us Do Part’: Marriage and Family in Seventeenth-Century Maryland,” in Tate and Ammerman, eds., Chesapeake, 132, 143; Horn, New World, 245, 247; Lois G. Carr, Russell B. Menard, and Lorena S. Walsh, Robert Cole’s World: Agriculture and Society in Early Maryland (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1991), 124, 138–39, 159 [hereafter: Coles’s World].
15. Ibid., 91, 93, 102–3, 105, 107, 108, 311; Horn, New World, 293–95, 302, 303, 333, 306–307; Main, Tobacco Colony, 141 (and chap. 4 generally), 217–19, 222; Menard, “Population,” 83; “Answer of the Lord Baltimore to the Querys About Maryland,” Mar. 26, 1678, in Md. Archives, V, 266; extended quotation from Barbara and Cary Carson, unpublished paper, in Horn, New World, 314–15; Louis B. Wright, The First Gentlemen of Virginia (San Marino, Calif., 1940), 191.
16. Carr et al., Cole’s World, 108–11; Horn, New World, 271–72, 275–76; Menard, “Population,” 72.
17. Russell Menard, “From Servants to Slaves: The Transformation of the Chesapeake Labor System,” Southern Studies 16 (1977), 355–90; Horn, New World, 151, 154–57.
18. For precise, detailed accounts of the pressures behind the transition to slavery in specific localities, see Rutman, Middlesex County, 72ff.; Paul G. E. Clemens, “The Settlement and Growth of Maryland’s Eastern Shore During the English Restoration,” Maryland Historian, 5 (1974), 69ff.
19. Engel Sluiter, “New Light on the ’20 and Odd Negroes’…,” WMQ, 54 (1997), 395–98; John W. Lee, ed., The Calvert Papers, I (Maryland Historical Society Fund Publication, no. 28, Baltimore, 1889), 149, 249; Md. Archives, IV, 189, 304; John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, The Economy of British America, 1607–1789 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1985), 136; Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1968), 74; Whittington B. Johnson, “The Origin and Nature of African Slavery in Seventeenth Century Maryland,” MHM, 73 (1978), 239–40; J. Douglas Deal, Race and Class in Colonial Virginia… (New York, 1993), 167, 177; Menard, “Population,” 86; Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone (Cambridge, Mass., 1998), 17–46.
20. Deal, Race and Class, 177; Edmund S. Morgan, “Slavery and Freedom: the American Paradox,” Journal of American History, 59 (1972), 17–18; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (New York, 1975), 154–57; Johnson, “Origin and Nature,” 217–50. For a full exploration of the lives of the black achievers on the Eastern Shore, see T. H. Breen and Stephen Innes, “Myne Owne Ground”: Race and Freedom on Virginia’s Eastern Shore, 1640–1676 (New York, 1980); for a broad interpretation, in the general context of the history of American slavery, see Berlin, Many Thousands Gone.
21. Ibid., 38; biogra
phical details in Deal, Race and Class, pt. 2; Jordan, White Over Black, chap. 1; Alden T. Vaughan and Virginia M. Vaughan, “Before Othello: Elizabethan Representations of Sub-Saharan Africans,” WMQ, 54 (1997), 18–44 (quotations at 44). Cf. James H. Sweet, “The Iberian Roots of American Racist Thought,” ibid., 143–66.
22. On the ambiguities in the use of the word slave: Robert McColley, “Slavery in Virginia: 1619–1660: A Reexamination,” in Robert H. Abzug and Stephen E. Maizlish, eds., New Perspectives on Race and Slavery in America (Lexington, Ky., 1986), 12–15; Helen T. Catterall and James J. Hayden, eds., Judicial Cases Concerning American Slavery and the Negro (Washington, D.C., 1926–37), IV, 2 n7 (the petition of the father of an indentured servant girl, “crav[ing] that his daughter may not be made a slave, a terme soe scandalous that if admitted to be the condicion or tytle the apprentices in this province will be so distructive as noe free borne Christians will ever be induced to come over [as] servants”).
23. Jordan, White Over Black, 81 (“Certainly it was the case in Maryland and Virginia that the legal enactment of Negro slavery followed social practice, rather than vice versa … slavery was less a matter of previous conception or external example in Maryland and Virginia than elsewhere”); April L. Hatfield, Atlantic Virginia (Philadelphia, 2004), 154–55.
24. Deal, Race and Class, 176, 254; Jordan, White Over Black, 81–82.
25. William D. Phillips, Jr., “The Old World Background of Slavery in the Americas,” in Barbara L. Solow, ed., Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System (Cambridge, England, 1991), chap. 2; for an excellent short summary of the global background of North American slavery, see Philip D. Morgan, “Origins of American Slavery,” in Organization of American Historians, Magazine of History, July 2005, 51–56, with references to the master works on the history of slavery by David B. Davis. Cf. Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery … 1492–1800 (London, 1997), chaps. 1–5.
26. For a detailed discussion of the law of 1664, see Jonathan L. Alpert, “The Origins of Slavery in the United States—the Maryland Precedent,” American Journal of Legal History, 14 (1970), 197–98; Johnson, “Origin and Nature,” 238–39. The text of the law of 1664 is in Md. Archives, I, 183–84.
27. William W. Hening, Statutes at Large … Laws of Virginia… (Richmond, Va., 1809–1823), III, 87–88, II, 260; Deal, Race and Class, 180, 258; Jordan, White Over Black, 78–79; William W. Wiecek, “The Statutory Law of Slavery and Race…,” WMQ, 34 (1977), 264. The logic of Virginia’s relief of felony charges against masters, the result of whose “correction” of a slave was such that the slave “should chance to die,” rested on the presumption that “it cannot be presumed that prepensed malice (which alone makes murther [a] felony should induce any man to destroy his owne estate.” Hening, Statutes, II, 270. On the repeal of the Act of 1664, see Catterall and Hayden, Judicial Cases, 2, 49.
28. Bailyn, “Politics and Social Structure,” 98; Menard, “Population,” 83–85; Peter W. Coldham, The Complete Book of Emigrants, 1607–1660 (Baltimore, Md., 1987), 173, 190, 191, 193, 211, 217, 233; Annie L. Jester and Martha W. Hiden, comps. and eds., Adventurers of Purse and Person: Virginia, 1607–1624/5 (3rd ed., revised by Virginia M. Meyer and John F. Dorman, Richmond, Va., 1987), 442–45, 607, 581; Main, Tobacco Colony, 225–39; William A. Reavis, “The Maryland Gentry and Social Mobility, 1637–1676,” WMQ, 14 (1957), 425–26.
29. Warren M. Billings, Sir William Berkeley and the Forging of Colonial Virginia (Baton Rouge, La., 2004), chaps. 1–3, quotation at 256; Billings, “Sir William Berkeley—Portrait by Fischer: A Critique” and Fischer’s “Rejoinder,” WMQ, 48 (1991), 598–611.
30. Edward [Hyde], Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion and Civil War in England…, ed. W. Dunn Macray ([1702–4]; Oxford, U.K., 1888), V, 263; Anon., “Ingrams Proseedings,” in A Narrative of the Indian and Civil Wars in Virginia in the Years 1675 and 1676 (Boston, 1814), in Peter Force, comp., Tracts and Other Papers… (Washington, D.C., 1836–46), I, no. 11, 34.
31. James Horn, “Cavalier Culture? The Social Development of Colonial Virginia,” WMQ, 48 (1991), 238–45.
32. Basil Morgan, “Sir Thomas Lunsford,” in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; P. R. Newman, ed., Royalist Officers in England and Wales, 1642–1660: A Biographical Dictionary (New York, 1981), 242; Rutman, Middlesex County, 211.
33. Newman, Royalist Officers, 69; CSPC, 337; Rutman, Middlesex County, 46; Billings, Berkeley, 216; Culpeper to William Blathwayt, Mar. 20, 1682–3, quoted in Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 253.
34. P. H. Hardacre, “The Further Adventures of Henry Norwood,” VMHB, 67 (1959), 271–72; Stephen S. Webb, “Henry Norwood,” in American National Biography Online; Colonel [Henry] Norwood, A Voyage to Virginia, in Force, Tracts, III, x, 3–4, 49; Newman, Officers, 195, xvi; Webb, The Governors-General … 1569–1681 (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1979), 15.
35. Horn, New World, 58. For a romantic exaggeration of the royalists’ numbers and influence, which shaped popular views, see Philip A. Bruce, Social Life of Virginia in the Seventeenth Century (Richmond, Va., 1907), 76ff. Cf. David H. Fischer, Albion’s Seed: Four British Folkways in America (New York, 1989), 207ff.; Horn’s critique, note 31 above, and Fischer’s reply, WMQ, 48 (1991), 277–89.
36. [Sir William Berkeley,] A Discourse and View of Virginia [London, 1663], 3, 9; Billings, Berkeley, 143–46.
37. Bailyn, “Politics and Social Structure,” 98–99; Douglas S. Freeman, George Washington (New York, 1948–54), I, 15–16.
38. Christopher Johnston, “Neale Family of Charles County,” MHM, 7 (1912), 202; Edward C. Papenfuse et al., comps., A Biographical Dictionary of the Maryland Legislature, 1635–1789 [hereafter: Biographical Dictionary] (Baltimore, Md., 1979–85), II, 609; Thomas J. Peterson, Catholics in Colonial Delmarva (Devon, Pa., 1996), 18; Beatriz B. Hardy, “A Papist in a Protestant Age: The Case of Richard Bennett, 1667–1749,” Journal of Southern Studies, 60 (1994), 206.
39. Papenfuse et al., Biographical Dictionary, II, 724; I, 187.
40. Ibid., I, 250–51; II, 830; L. G. Shreve, Tench Tilghman: The Life and Times of Washington’s Aide-de-Camp (Centreville, Md., 1982), 10, 12, 13.
41. Bailyn, “Politics and Social Structure,” 99; Papenfuse et al., Biographical Dictionary, II, 609.
42. Bailyn, “Politics and Social Structure,” 107; Main, Tobacco Colony, 225, 233.
43. Warren M. Billings, “Imagining Green Spring House,” Virginia Cavalcade, 44 (1994), 85–95; Billings, Berkeley, 60–62; Horn, New World, 307.
CHAPTER 8
The Dutch Farrago
1. Jan Lucassen, “The Netherlands, the Dutch, and Long-Distance Migration in the Late Sixteenth to Early Nineteenth Centuries,” in Nicholas Canny, ed., Europeans on the Move: Studies on European Migration, 1500–1800 (Oxford, England, 1994), 156, 159–60; Oliver A. Rink, Holland on the Hudson: An Economic and Social History of Dutch New York (Ithaca, N.Y., 1986), 155–56.
2. Lucassen, “Long-Distance Migration,” 160, 166, 167.
3. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 29, 32–35, 47.
4. Ibid., 62–63; C. R. Boxer, The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800 (Harmondsworth, England, 1965), 24–25.
5. Ibid., 48–50; Henk den Heijer, “The Dutch West India Company, 1621–1791,” in Johannes Postma and Victor Enthoven, eds., Riches from Atlantic Commerce … 1585–1817 (Leiden, 2003), chap. 4, esp. 85; Docs. Rel., I, 66; Pieter Geyl, The Netherlands Divided (1609–1648) (S.T. Bindoff, trans., London, 1936), 191–96; Johannes M. Postma, The Dutch in the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1600–1815 (Cambridge, England, 1990), 19.
6. Ibid., 29; Charles Wilson, Profit and Power; A Study of England and the Dutch Wars (London, [1957]), 45, 115.
7. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 73, 76–79. For a full discussion of the reluctance of the Dutch and especially the Dutch West India Company to engage in territorial conquest and their concentration on commerce and the empire of trade, see Donna Merwick, The Shame and the Sorrow: Dutch-Amerindi
an Encounters in New Netherland (Philadelphia, 2006), 87–88, 107, 117, 194, 204.
8. Ibid., 79–80; Emily J. de Forest, A Walloon Family in America (Boston, 1914), I, 17–20; II, 422, 424; Johanna W. Tammel, comp., Pilgrims and Other People from the British Isles in Leiden, 1576–1640 (Isle of Man, 1989), passim; Charles W. Baird, History of the Huguenot Emigration to America ([1885] Baltimore, Md., 1966), I, 160–61, 351–53.
9. De Forest, Walloon Family, I, 21, 38ff., 45, 50; Cornelis C. Goslinga, The Dutch in the Caribbean and on the Wild Coast (Gainesville, Fla., 1971), 75ff.
10. J. Franklin Jameson, ed., Narratives of New Netherland 1609–1664 (New York, 1909), 75, 47; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 79–80; Van Cleaf Bachman, Peltries or Plantations: The Economic Policies of the Dutch West India Company in New Netherland, 1623–1639 (Baltimore, Md., 1969), 81–83.
11. Ibid., 85n35; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 143; Thomas J. Condon, New York Beginnings: The Commercial Origins of New Netherland (New York, 1968), 101, 102, 106, 78; Richard Pares, Merchants and Planters (Economic History Review Supplements, 4, Cambridge, England, 1960), 15–16.
12. Condon, New York Beginnings, 105, 86; Bachman, Peltries, 84–85, 87, 93; Jameson, Narratives, 79, 83, 85, 89–90; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 81ff., 85n34.
13. Ibid., 89–91, 94–109; Boxer, Dutch Empire, chap. 7; Bachman, Peltries, 5–108. The text of “Freedoms and Exemptions” is in A. J. F. van Laer, trans. and ed., Van Rensselaer Bowier Manuscripts (Albany, N.Y., 1908) [hereafter RB MSS], 137–53. For Van Rensselaer’s complicated claims to feudal rights, ibid., 530–31 and his “Memorial” of 1633, 235ff. For the term patroon: S. G. Nissenson, The Patroon’s Domain (New York, 1937), 26–27.
14. Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 107ff.; Bachman, Peltries, 161–67.
15. Charles M. Parr, The Voyages of David de Vries (New York, 1969), 109, 111–13; Rink, Holland on the Hudson, 113.
16. Ellis L. Raesly, Portrait of New Netherland (New York, 1945), 22–25; Albert C. Myers, ed., Narratives of Early Pennsylvania, West New Jersey, and Delaware, 1630–1707 (New York, 1912), 15–17; Parr, De Vries, 119–22. C. A. Weslager, The Siconese Indians of Lewes, Delaware (Lewes, Del., 1991), 16–19, casts doubt on the accuracy of De Vries’s account of the Swanendael massacre.
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