by Peter Watson
32. Bonds, Music as Thought, pp. 35–40.
33. Again, for a different perspective, concentrating on the music lovers’ societies, see Carl Ferdinand Pohl, Denkschrift aus Anlass des hundertjährigen Bestehens der Tonkünstler-Societät: Im Jahre 1862 reorganisiert als “Haydn,” Witwen-und Waisen-Versorgungs-Verein der Tonkünstler in Wien (Vienna, 1871), pp. 67–69.
34. Applegate and Potter, eds., Music, p. 6. For the link to nationalism, see p. 18 and for the Germanness of music, see p. 2. See also Bonds, Music as Thought, p. 46.
35. Bonds, Music as Thought, p. 51.
36. Abert, Goethe und die Musik, and Ruttkowksi, Literarische Chanson.
37. For a description of the emergence of the concert hall, see Eduard Hanslick, Geschichte des Concertwesens in Wien. 2 vols. (Vienna, 1897), vol. 1, pp. 289f.
38. Applegate and Potter, eds., Music, pp. 2 and 9.
39. Bonds, Music as Thought, p. 87.
40. Beethoven himself did not share many of these views. See Wyn Jones, Symphony, pp. 155ff.
41. Bonds, Music as Thought, p. 106.
CHAPTER 7: COSMOS, CUNEIFORM, CLAUSEWITZ
1. Mott T. Greene, Geology in the Nineteenth Century: Changing Views of a Changing World (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1982), p. 36.
2. Abraham Gottlob Werner, Kurze Klassifikation und Beschreibung der verschiedenen Gebirgsarten. Translation and facsimile of original text, tr. and with an introduction by Alexander Ospovat (New York: Hafner, 1971). Original published 1789.
3. Rachael Laudan, From Mineralogy to Geology: The Foundations of a Science: 1650–1830 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 48ff. For Werner’s theory of color, see Patrick Syme, Werner’s Nomenclature of Colours (Edinburgh: W. Blackwood, 1821).
4. Laudan, Mineralogy, p. 49.
5. Ibid., p. 113ff.
6. Ibid., p. 40.
7. Ospovat, op. cit.
8. Laudan, Mineralogy, p. 100.
9. Ibid., p. 105.
10. Ibid., p. 111.
11. Marcus du Sautoy, The Music of the Primes (London: HarperCollins, 2003/2004), p. 20.
12. See Ludwig Schlesinger, “Über Gauss Jugendarbeiten zum arithmetisch-geometrischen Mittel,” Jahresbericht d. Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung 20, no. 11–12 (November–December 1911): pp. 396–403.
13. Robert Jordan, “Die verlorene Ceres,” Neueste Nachrichten, Brunswick, May 1, 1927. “Deter-minatio attractionis, quam in punctum quoduis positionis datae exerceret planeta, si ejus massa per totam orbitam, ratione temporis, que singulae partes describuntur, uniformiter esset dispertita.” Comment, Göttingen, IV, 1816–1818, pp. 21–48.
14. Du Sautoy, Music of the Primes, p. 109. G. Waldo Dunnington, Carl Friedrich Gauss: Titan of Science (New York: Hafner, 1955), pp. 174ff.
15. Morris Kline, Mathematics for Non-Mathematicians (New York: Dover, 1967), p. 456.
16. Dunnington, Carl Friedrich Gauss, pp. 147–162. See also Catherine Goldstein et al., eds., The Shaping of Arithmetic: After C. F. Gauss’s Disquistiones arithmeticae (Berlin: Springer, 2007).
17. Dunnington, Carl Friedrich Gauss, pp. 139ff.
18. Du Sautoy, Music of the Primes, p. 74.
19. For a discussion of the varied forms of homeopathy, see Margery G. Blackie, The Patient Not the Cure: The Challenge of Homeopathy (London: Macdonald & Jane’s, 1976), pp. 3ff. See also Thomas Lindsay Bradford, The Life and Letters of Dr. Samuel Hahnemann (Philadelphia: Boericke & Tafel, 1895).
20. Martin Gumpert, Hahnemann: The Adventurous Career of a Medical Rebel (New York: L. B. Fischer, 1945), p. 6.
21. Ibid., p. 22. Bradford, Life and Letters, pp. 24–26. For Hahnemann’s contemporaries, see Blackie, Patient, pp. 25ff.
22. Bradford, Life and Letters, p. 35. Blackie, Patient, p. 16.
23. Gumpert, Hahnemann, p. 68.
24. Ibid., p. 70.
25. Bradford, Life and Letters, p. 72.
26. A recent biography describes Humboldt in this way: it is “quite possible that no other European had so great an impact on the intellectual culture of nineteenth-century America.” Aaron Sachs, The Humboldt Current: A European Explorer and His American Disciples (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
27. Herbert Scurla, Alexander von Humboldt: Eine Biographie (Düsseldorf: Claasen, 1982), pp. 188–191. See also Hermann Klencke, Lives of the Brothers Humboldt: Alexander and William, trans. Juliette Bauer (London: Ingram, Cooke & Co., 1852).
28. Scurla, Alexander von Humboldt, pp. 51–57.
29. Ibid., pp. 102ff.
30. Gerard Helferich, Humboldt’s Cosmos (New York: Gotham, 2004), p. 21. Humboldt was himself called “the second Columbus.” Scurla, Alexander von Humboldt, p. 415.
31. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, VI, p. 550.
32. Scurla, Alexander von Humboldt, pp. 138f.
33. Ibid., p. 178. According to Aaron Sachs, he inspired four great American explorers: J. N. Reynolds, Clarence King, George Wallace Melville, and John Muir. Sachs, Humboldt Current, passim.
34. For Humboldt’s ideas about Kosmos and Volksbildung, see Nicolaas A. Rupke, Alexander von Humboldt: A Metabiography (Frankfurt and Berlin: Peter Lang, 2005), pp. 38–43.
35. Helferich, Humboldt’s Cosmos, p. 23.
36. Scurla, Alexander von Humboldt, pp. 206–207.
37. For a discussion of the wider importance of Alexander von Humboldt, see: Rupke, Alexander von Humboldt, pp. 162–218.
38. C. W. Ceram, Gods, Graves and Scholars (London: Book Club Associates, 1967), p. 228.
39. Ibid.
40. Arthur John Booth, The Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual Cuneiform Inscriptions (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1902), p. 173. Grotefend’s own account has been translated into English in A. H. L. Heere, Historical Works, vol. 2 (Oxford, 1833), p. 337. See also Denise Schmandt-Besserat, Before Writing, vol.1, From Counting to Cuneiform (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992).
41. Ceram, Gods, Graves, p. 230.
42. Ibid., p. 231.
43. Ibid., p. 233.
44. Hugh Smith, On Clausewitz: A Study of Military and Political Ideas (Basingstoke: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2005), p. viii. Peter Paret says much of it is common sense. Peter Paret, Understanding War: Essays on Clausewitz and the History of Military Power (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 117.
45. Paret says the advent of nuclear power has made the problems that Clausewitz addressed even more important than in his day. Paret, Understanding War, p. 96.
46. Smith, On Clausewitz, p. ix.
47. Ibid., p. 3.
48. Wilhelm von Schramm, Clausewitz: Leben und Werk (Esslingen am Neckar: Bechtle, 1981), pp. 140ff.
49. Schramm, Clausewitz, pp. 363ff.
50. Being director of the war academy concentrated his mind on the general staff. Major von Roder, Für Euch, meine Kinder! (Berlin, 1861).
51. Smith, On Clausewitz, p. 25. Carl von Clausewitz, “Bemerkungen über die reine und angewandte Strategie des Herrn von Bülow,” Neue Bellona 9, no. 3 (1805): 271.
52. Schramm, Clausewitz, pp. 557ff. Smith, On Clausewitz, p. 25.
53. Smith, On Clausewitz, p. 27.
54. Ibid.
55. Ibid., p. 44.
56. For his appreciation of history, see Hans Delbrück, “General von Clausewitz,” in Historische und Politische Aufsätze (Berlin: Walther & Apolant, 1887).
57. Schramm, Clausewitz, pp. 135–158 and 220–255. And see Michael Eliot Howard, Clausewitz (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).
58. Smith, On Clausewitz, pp. 65–66.
59. Schramm, Clausewitz, p. 181. Smith, On Clausewitz, p. 130.
60. Smith, On Clausewitz, p. 134.
61. Ibid., p. 237.
62. Ibid., p. 238.
63. Ibid., p. 239.
CHAPTER 8: THE MOTHER TONGUE, THE INNER VOICE, AND THE ROMANTIC SONG
1. Kai Hammermeister, The German Aesthetic Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp.
62–86. See also Friedrich von Schlegel, The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works, trans. E. J. Millington (London: Bell, 1875). In the nineteenth century, Friedrich Max Müller, a German Orientalist who became the first professor of comparative philology at Oxford, said this: “If I were asked what I consider the most important discovery of the nineteenth century with respect to ancient history of mankind, I should answer by the following short line: Sanskrit Dyaus Pitar = Greek Zeùs = Latin Juppiter = Old Norse Tyr.”
2. Manfred Frank, The Philosophical Foundations of Early German Romanticism, trans. Elizabeth Millán-Zaibert (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004). See also Gerald N. Izenberg, Romanticism, Revolution, and the Origins of Modern Selfhood, 1787–1802 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992).
3. Raymond Schwab, The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East 1680– 1880 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1984), p. 11.
4. Isaiah Berlin, The Sense of Reality (London: Chatto & Windus, 1996), p. 168.
5. Isaiah Berlin, Freedom and Its Betrayal (London: Chatto & Windus, 2002), p. 60.
6. Nicholas Halmi, The Genealogy of the Romantic Symbol (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 51–53, 63–65, and 144–147.
7. Berlin, Sense of Reality, p. 179.
8. Izenberg, Romanticism, especially parts 1 and 2. Izenberg is particularly helpful on the links between politics and psyche and the role of irony. See also Kathleen M. Wheeler, ed., German Aesthetic and Literary Criticism: The Romantic Ironists and Goethe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984), which contains material from the lesser known Romantics: Novalis, Ludwig Tieck, Karl Solger, and Jean Paul Richter.
9. Butler, Tyranny of Greece, p. 6.
10. Berlin, Freedom and Its Betrayal, p. 89.
11. Ibid., p. 91.
12. Ibid., p. 96.
13. Manfred Schröter, ed., “Schelling’s Erster Entwurf,” in Schellings Werke, 12 vols. (Munich: C. H. Beck, 1927–59), vol. 2, p. 63.
14. See, for example, Karl Jaspers, Schelling: Grösse und Verhängnis (Munich: Piper, 1955), p. 154ff.
15. Berlin, Freedom and Its Betrayal, p. 98.
16. Ibid.
17. Manfred Frank, Das Problem “Zeit” in der deutschen Romantik (Munich: Winkler, 1972), pp. 22–44 and 54–55. Also useful is The Aesthetic and Miscellaneous Works of Friedrich von Schlegel, trans. E. J. Millington (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1849). Includes “On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians.”
18. Berlin, Freedom and Its Betrayal, p. 110.
19. Ibid., p. 111.
20. Ibid., pp. 184–185.
21. Izenberg, Romanticism, pp. 18ff.
22. Robert J. Richards, The Romantic Conception of Life: Science and Philosophy in the Age of Goethe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002), p. 18.
23. Ibid., p. 22.
24. Carmen Kahn-Wallerstein, Schellings Frauen: Caroline und Pauline (Bern: Francke, 1959).
25. Richards, Romantic Conception, p. 102.
26. Ibid., p. 8.
27. Ibid., p. 10.
28. Ibid., p. 12.
29. Friedrich Schelling, System des transcendentalism Idealismus (1800), in M. Schröter, Schellings Werke, vol. 2, p. 249.
30. Richards, Romantic Conception, p. 144.
31. Johann Christian Reil, Rhapsodien über die Anwendung der psychischen Curmethode auf Geisteszerrüttungen (Halle: Curtschen Buchhandlung, 1803). See also Henrik Steffens, Johann Christian Reil: Ein Denkschrift (Halle: Curtschen Buchhandlung, 1815).
32. Richards, Romantic Conception, pp. 267ff.
33. Ibid., pp. 305–306.
34. Karl J. Fink, Goethe’s History of Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), p. 9.
35. David Simpson, ed., German Aesthetic and Literary Criticism: Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Schopenhauer, Hegel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
36. Fink, Goethe’s History, p. 17.
37. Ibid., p. 22.
38. Werner Heisenberg, “Die Goethesche und Newtonesche Farbenlehre im Lichte der Modern Physik,” Geist der Zeit 19 (1941): 261–275; Jürgen Blasius, “Zur Wissenschaftstheorie Goethes,” Zeitschrift für philsophisches Forschung 33 (1979): 371–388.
39. Fink, Goethe’s History, pp. 33–34.
40. Ibid., p. 44.
41. Ibid., p. 45.
42. Rupprecht Matthaei et al., eds. “J. W. Goethe, ‘Verhältnis zur Philosophie,’” in Die Schriften zur Naturwissenschaft. 11 vols. in 2 parts (Weimar: Böhlau, 1947), part 1, vol. 4, p. 210.
CHAPTER 9: THE BRANDENBURG GATE, THE IRON CROSS, AND THE GERMAN RAPHAELS
1. This is despite the fact that a long overdue (and excellent) catalogue raisonné of Mengs’s oeuvre was published in 1999. See Steffi Roettgen, Anton Raphael Mengs 1728–1779, 2 vols. (Munich: Hirmir, 1999). The organization of this work brings out the number of religious pictures by Mengs.
2. Thomas Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs and Neoclassicism (New York: Garland Publishing, 1979), p. 1.
3. Ibid., p. 15.
4. Johann Kirsch, Die römischen Titelkirchen im Altertum. Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums, IX (Paderborn: F. Schöningh, 1918), pp. 58ff.
5. Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs, p. 66.
6. Ibid., p. 72.
7. Ibid., p. 86.
8. Carl Justi, Winckelmann und seine Zeitgenossen. 3 vols. (Leipzig: F. C. W. Vogel, 1923), vol. 2, p. 382. See also Roettgen, Anton Raphael Mengs.
9. Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs, p. 109.
10. Ibid., p. 111.
11. Ibid., p. 126.
12. G. L. Bianconi, Elogio storico del Cavaliere Antonio Raffaele Mengs (Milan, 1780), p. 195. For his time in Spain, see Dieter Honisch, Anton Raphael Mengs und die Bildform des Frühklassizismus (Recklinghausen: Aurel Bongers, 1965), pp. 38ff.
13. Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs, p. 197.
14. Jean Locquin, La peinture d’histoire en France de 1747 à 1785 (Paris, 1912), p. 104. Quoted in Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs. See also Hugh Honour, ed., The Age of Neoclassicism. Catalog of the Fourteenth Exhibition of the Council of Europe, at the Royal Academy and the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, September 9–November 19, 1972 (London: Arts Council of Great Britain, 1972).
15. Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs, p. 215.
16. Honour, Age of Neoclassicism, p. xxii.
17. Ibid., p. xxiii.
18. Ibid., p. liii.
19. Ibid., p. lxi.
20. Merlies Lammert, David Gilly, Ein Baumeister des deutschen Klassizismus (Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1964), pp. 60ff.
21. Honour, Age of Neoclassicism, p. lxii.
22. Ibid.
23. Michael Snodin, ed., Karl Friedrich Schinkel: A Universal Man. Exhibition at the Victoria and Albert Museum, July 31–October 27, 1991 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press in association with the Victoria and Albert Museum, 1991).
24. Gottfried Riemann und Christa Hesse, Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Architekturzeichnungen (Berlin: Henschel, 1991). See also Helmut Börsch-Supan and Lucius Grisebach, Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Architektur, Malerei, Kunstgewerbe. Exhibition, Berlin, 1981 (Berlin: Nicolai, 1981).
25. Louis Schreider, Das Buch des Eisernen Kreuzes: Die Ordens Sammlung (Berlin, 1971).
26. Gordon Williams, The Iron Cross: A History, 1813–1957 (Poole: Blandford Press, 1984), p. 12. Williams says that Schinkel’s design was preferred to the Kaiser’s own.
27. Snodin, ed., Karl Friedrich Schinkel, especially the essays by Gottfried Riemann and Alex Potts. See also Riemann und Hesse, Karl Friedrich Schinkel. This short book is beautifully illustrated with Schinkel’s drawings, illustrated notes, plans, and carefully drawn interiors.
28. Reinhard Wegner, ed., Karl Friedrich Schinkel, Die Reise nach Frankreich und England in Jahre 1826 (Munich: Deutscher-Kunstverlag, 1990). This contains facsimiles of the original text.
29. Rand Carter, Karl Friedrich Schinkel: The Last Great Architect (Chicago: Exedra Books, 1981).
30. Erik Forssman, “Höhere Bau
kunst,” in his Karl Friedrich Schinkel: Bauwerke und Baugedanken (Munich: Schnell & Steiner, 1981), pp. 211–233.
31. Oswald Hederer, Leo von Klenze: Persönlichkeit und Werk (Munich: Georg D. W. Callwey, 1964). For his work in Bavaria, see pp. 172–180. Klenze was also an accomplished painter; see Norbert Lieb and Florian Hufnagl, Leo von Klenze: Gemälde und Zeichnungen (Munich: D. W. Callwey, 1979).
32. For the pictures themselves, see Klaus Gallwitz, ed., Die Nazarener in Rom: Ein deutscher Künstlerbund der Romantik (Munich: Prestel, 1981). The exhibition was in Rome and easily confirms the excellent pictorial qualities of these (now) deeply unfashionable painters.
33. Mitchell Benjamin Frank, “Overbeck as the Monk-Artist,” in his German Romantic Painting Redefined: Nazarene Tradition and the Narratives of Romanticism (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2000), pp. 49ff. For drawings of the artists, see pp. 26–27. See also Fritz Schmalenbach, “Das Over-becksche Familienbild,” in Studien über Malerei und Malereigeschichte (Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1972), pp. 77–81.
34. Margaret Howitt, Friedrich Overbeck: Sein Leben und Schaffen. 2 vols. (Bern: Herbert Long, 1971), vol. 1, p. 82. Originally published by Herder in Freiburg in 1886.
35. Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs, p. 21.
36. Ibid., p. 26.
37. Ibid., p. 29.
38. Frank, German Romantic Painting, p. 26. See also: Gallwitz, ed., Nazarener in Rom.
39. By coincidence, and to their great delight, they discovered an old workman who at one time had helped prepare the plaster for Mengs, and he was able to teach them the rudimentary technique of an almost forgotten craft. Frank, German Romantic Painting, p. 26.
40. Frank, German Romantic Painting, p. 140.
41. Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs, p. 40.
42. Frank, German Romantic Painting, p. 143.
43. Pelzel, Anton Raphael Mengs, p. 56.
44. Ibid., p. 61.
45. Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, Die Bibel in Bildern (Leipzig: G. Wigand, 1860).
46. Hans Joachim Kluge, Caspar David Friedrich: Entwürfe für Grabmäler und Denkmäler (Munich: Deutscher Verlag für Kunstwissenschaft, 1993), pp. 11–14.
47. Ibid., pp. 17ff.
48. See for example, the catalog of the exhibition The Romantic Vision of Caspar David Friedrich: Paintings and Drawings from the U.S.S.R., at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, and the Chicago Art Institute, 1990–1991, distributed by Harry N. Abrams, New York.
