by Peter Watson
42. Magee, Wagner and Philosophy, p. 316.
43. Thomas H. Brobjer, Nietzsche’s Philosophical Context: An Intellectual Biography (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2008).
44. Safranski, Nietzsche, pp. 184–185.
45. “Your true being does not lie buried deep within you, but rather immeasurably high above you or at least above what you normally take to be your ego.” Safranski, Nietzsche, p. 260.
46. Franz, Graf zu Solms-Laubach, Nietzsche and Early German and Austrian Sociology (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2007). Magee, Wagner and Philosophy, p. 319.
47. Magee, Wagner and Philosophy, p. 334.
48. Köhler, Nietzsche and Wagner, pp. 141ff.
49. Magee, Wagner and Philosophy, pp. 336–337.
CHAPTER 17: PHYSICS BECOMES KING:
HELMHOLTZ, CLAUSIUS, BOLTZMANN, RIEMANN
The title for this chapter is taken from Iwan Rhys Morus, When Physics Became King (London: University of Chicago Press, 2005).
1. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, IX, pp. 235–240.
2. Ken Caneva, Robert Mayer and the Conservation of Energy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
3. P. M. Harman, Energy, Force and Matter: The Conceptual Development of Nineteenth-Century Physics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 144. J. C. Poggendorff, Annalen der Physik und Chemie (Leipzig: J. A. Barth, 1824).
4. Harman, Energy, p. 145.
5. Morus, When Physics Became King, p. 77.
6. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Essential Tension: Selected Studies in Scientific Tradition and Change (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), pp. 97–98.
7. Harman, Energy, p. 1.
8. Morus, When Physics Became King, p. 47.
9. Ibid.
10. Ibid., p. 48.
11. Mary Jo Nye, Before Big Science: The Pursuit of Modern Chemistry and Physics, 1800–1940 (New York: Twayne, 1996), pp. 3, 10–11.
12. Morus, When Physics Became King, p. 63.
13. Ibid., p. 55.
14. Marcel Du Sautoy, The Music of the Primes: Why an Unsolved Problem in Mathematics Matters (London: Harper Perennial, 2004), p. 95.
15. Christa Jungnickel and Russell McCormmach, The Intellectual Mastery of Nature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), vol. 1, p. 164. Quoted in Morus, When Physics, p. 147. See also Yehuda Elkana, The Discovery of the Conservation of Energy (London: Hutchinson, 1974).
16. Morus, When Physics Became King, p. 45.
17. Ibid., p. 42.
18. Harman, Energy, p. 146.
19. Rudolf Clausius, “Über die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Wärme nennen,” Annalen der Physik und Chemie 173, no. 3 (1857): 353–380. Quoted in Harman, Energy, pp. 147–148.
20. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, III, pp. 303–310.
21. Morus, When Physics Became King, p. 53. For the Carnot-Clausius link, see George Birt-whistle, The Principle of Thermodynamics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1931), pp. 25–38.
22. Harman, Energy, p. 148.
23. Ibid., p. 149.
24. Ibid., p. 150.
25. Lewis Campbell and William Garnett, The Life of James Clerk Maxwell (London: Macmillan, 1882), p. 143.
26. Morus, When Physics Became King, p. 65.
27. Ibid., p. 68.
28. For more background, see Ted Porter, The Rise of Statistical Thinking, 1820–1900 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1983).
29. For accounts in English, see Brian McGuinness, ed., Ludwig Boltzmann: Theoretical Physics and Philosophical Problems; Selected Writings (Dordrecht, The Netherlands, and Boston: D. Reidel, 1974), pp. 83–87 and 217–219. See Engelbert Broda, Ludwig Boltzmann: Mensch, Physiker, Philosoph (Vienna: Franz Deuticke), 1955, pp. 57–66 and pp. 74ff. for his views on heat death.
30. Carlo Cercignani, Ludwig Boltzmann: The Man Who Trusted Atoms (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), especially pp. 120ff., for the statistical interpretation of entropy. This book also contains some amusing cartoons of Boltzmann by Karl Przibram.
31. Carl Boyer, A History of Mathematics. 2nd ed., rev. by Uta C. Merzbach (New York: Wiley, 1991), p. 496.
32. Ibid., p. 497.
33. Ibid., p. 507.
34. For the relationship between Klein, Riemann, Dirichlet, and Weierstrass, see the very readable biography by Constance Reid, Hilbert (London/Berlin: George Allen and Unwin/Springer-Verlag, 1970), pp. 65ff.
35. Boyer, History, p. 545.
36. Ibid., p. 555.
37. Du Sautoy, Music of the Primes, p. 79.
38. For the correspondence between Klein and David Hilbert, with references to Dirichlet, Dedekind, Einstein, Husserl, Nernst, Poincaré and Weierstrass, see Günther Frei, Der Briefwechsel David Hilbert–Felix Klein (1886–1918) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1985).
39. Reid, Hilbert, pp. 45–46.
40. Boyer, History, p. 550.
CHAPTER 18: THE RISE OF THE LABORATORY: SIEMENS, HOFMANN, BAYER, ZEISS
1. Werner von Siemens, Inventor and Entrepreneur: Recollections of Werner von Siemens (London/Munich: Lund Humphries/Prestel), 1966, p. 23.
2. Ibid., p. 42.
3. For details of Halske, see Georg Siemens, History of the House of Siemens, trans. A. F. Rodger (Freiburg/Munich: Karl Alber, 1957), vol. 1, pp. 19f.; and Wilfried Feldenkirchen, Werner von Siemens: Erfinder und internationaler Unternehmer (Munich: Piper, 1996).
4. Siemens, Inventor, p. 71.
5. Ibid., p. 229.
6. For later developments, see Siemens, Inventor, vol. 1, pp. 300ff., and vol. 2, passim.
7. Diarmuid Jeffreys, Aspirin: The Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug (London: Bloomsbury, 2004), pp. 56–57.
8. Ibid., p. 43.
9. Rudolf Benedikt, The Chemistry of the Coal-Tar Colours, trans. E. Knecht (London: George Bell, 1886), pp. 1–2.
10. Jeffreys, Aspirin, p. 45.
11. John Joseph Beer, The Emergence of the German Dye Industry (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1959), p. 3.
12. Ibid., p. 10.
13. For the chemical composition/structure of aniline, toluidine, and rosaniline, see Benedikt, Chemistry, pp. 76ff.
14. Beer, Emergence, pp. 28–29.
15. Ibid., p. 44.
16. Ibid., p. 53.
17. Ibid., p. 57.
18. Ibid., p. 61.
19. Ibid., p. 90.
20. For the links between dyes, colored inks, sweeteners, drugs, and photographic chemicals, see Thomas Beacall, et al., Dyestuffs and Coal-Tar Products (London: Crosby Lockwood, 1916).
21. Beer, Emergence, p. 97.
22. Ibid., p. 88.
23. Ibid., p. 100.
24. Ibid., p. 115.
25. Ibid., p. 120.
26. See, for example, Josiah E. DuBois, in collaboration with Edward Johnson, Generals in Grey Suits: The Directors of the International “I.G. Farben” Cartel, Their Conspiracy and Trial at Nuremberg (London: Bodley Head, 1953).
27. Erik Verg, et al., Milestones (Leverkusen: Bayer AG, 1988). Quoted in Jeffreys, Aspirin, p. 58.
28. Jeffreys, Aspirin, p. 62.
29. Ibid., p. 63.
30. Ibid., p. 64.
31. Ibid., p. 65.
32. Ibid., p. 71.
33. Ibid., p. 72.
34. “Pharmakologisches über Aspirin-Acetylsalicylsäure,” Archiv für die gesammte Physiologie, 1999. Quoted in Jeffreys, Aspirin, p. 73. No author or page references given.
35. Jeffreys, Aspirin, p. 73.
36. Diarmuid Jeffreys devotes a chapter of his book about aspirin to what he calls “the aspirin age,” about the way Bayer’s assets were dispersed in America after World War I. He also traces its role in the IG Farben cartel scandal. In The Aspirin Age, 1919–1941, written by Samuel Hopkins Adams but edited by Isabel Leighton (London: Bodley Head, 1950), she distinguishes a time, between the world wars, when—ironically—she seems to feel the world needed the sort of pick-me-up aspirin provides.
37. Edith Hellmuth and Wolfgang
Mühlfriedel, Zeiss 1846–1905, vol. 1 of Carl Zeiss: Die Geschichte eines Unternehmens (Weimar/Cologne/Vienna: Böhlau, 1996), esp. pp. 59–113, “Die wissenschaftliche Grundlegung der modernen Mikroskopfertigung.”
38. For an English—but much older—account, see Felix Auerbach, The Zeiss Works and the Carl Zeiss Stiftung in Jena, trans. S. F. Paul and F. J. Cheshire (London: Marshall, Brookes & Chalkley, 1927). This book contains a list of the most important Zeiss inventions.
39. The Great Age of the Miscroscope is a catalog produced by the Royal Microscopical Society of the United Kingdom, to mark its 150th anniversary. The society was the first to be formed with a scientific instrument as its focus. The catalog consists of mainly British but also French and German instruments.
40. Just as the microscope is the symbol of the laboratory, so the laboratory is the symbol of science. In Tales from the Laboratory (Munich: Iudicium, 2005), editor Rüdiger Görner introduces a series of essays about the influence of science on German literature. See in particular the essay by Dieter Wuttke, “From the Laboratory of a Cultural Historian,” about how the spectacular advances of laboratory science in Germany in the nineteenth century opened up and entrenched the division between the sciences and the humanities. As will be seen in later chapters, this had tragic consequences for Germany.
CHAPTER 19: MASTERS OF METAL: KRUPP, BENZ, DIESEL, RATHENAU
1. Peter Batty, The House of Krupp (London: Secker & Warburg, 1966), p. 46.
2. Wilhem Berdrow, Alfred Krupp. 3 vols. (Berlin: Von Reimar Hobbing, 1927).
3. Ibid., pp. 89ff. Batty, House of Krupp, p. 49.
4. Batty, House of Krupp, p. 59.
5. Ibid., p. 61.
6. Ibid., p. 64.
7. For the context of this arms race, see Jonathan A. Grant, Rulers, Guns and Money: The Global Arms Race in the Age of Imperialism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007). Grant looks systematically at Krupp’s dealings with Russia, the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria, Romania, South America, Japan, Serbia, and Greece.
8. See, for example, Krupp Archive, Essen: WA 7f/886, “Notic Beziehungen zur Turkei,” quoted in Grant, Rulers, p. 28. Batty, House of Krupp, p. 71.
9. Willi A. Boelcke, ed., Krupp und die Hohenzollern in Dokumenten (Frankfurt am Main: Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Athenaion, 1970), for correspondence between Krupp and Bismarck.
10. Batty, House of Krupp, p. 72.
11. Ibid., p. 77.
12. Volker R. Berghahn, Der Tirptiz-Plan: Genesis und Verfall einer innenpolitischen Krisenstrategie unter Wilhelm II (Düsseldorf: Droste, 1971), pp. 227ff. See also Gary E. Weir, Building the Kaiser’s Navy: The Imperial Navy Office and German Industry in the Von Tirpitz Era (Shrewsbury: Airlite, 1992), passim.
13. Batty, House of Krupp, p. 82.
14. Ibid., p. 83.
15. Peter Gay, Schnitzler’s Century: The Making of Middle Class Culture, 1815–1914 (London: Allen Lane, Penguin Press, 2001), p. 7.
16. Batty, House of Krupp, p. 93.
17. Ibid., p. 95.
18. For the appearance of Villa Hügel, see Bernt Engelmann, Krupp: Legenden und Wirklichkeit (Munich: Schneckluth, 1969), pp. 208–209. This is a somewhat irreverent book.
19. St. John C. Nixon, The Antique Automobile (London: Cassell, 1956), p. 25. David Scott-Moncrieff, with St. John Nixon and Clarence Paget, Three-Pointed Star: The Story of Mercedes-Benz Cars and Their Racing Successes (London: Cassell, 1955), pp. 3–19.
20. Nixon, Antique Automobile, p. 29.
21. Ibid., p. 33.
22. Scott-Moncrieff, Three-Pointed Star, pp. 20–56.
23. Nixon, Antique Automobile, p. 35.
24. Scott-Moncrieff, Three-Pointed Star, pp. 120–149.
25. Of course, the later history of Daimler-Benz was not without controversy. See Neil Gregor, Daimler-Benz in the Third Reich (New Haven, Conn., and London: Yale University Press, 1998). For Maybach, see Scott-Moncrieff, Three-Pointed Star, pp. 59ff.
26. For a discussion of German engineers and their social position, see Donald E. Thomas Jr., Diesel: Technology and Society in Industrial Germany (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1987), pp. 38ff.
27. Eugen Diesel, Diesel: Der Mensch, das Werk, das Schicksal (Hamburg: Hanseatische Verlagsanstalt, 1934), p. 88.
28. Thomas, Diesel, pp. 68ff.
29. Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, ed., Walther Rathenau, Industrialist, Banker, Intellectual and Politician: Notes and Diaries, 1907–1922 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1985), p. 1.
30. Ibid., p. 4.
31. Christian Schölzel, Walther Rathenau: Eine Biographie (Paderborn: Ferdinand Schöningh, 2004), p. 28.
32. Pogge von Strandmann, Walther Rathenau, p. 14.
33. Schölzel, Walther Rathenau, pp. 213ff.
34. Ibid., pp. 81ff.
35. Pogge von Strandmann, Walther Rathenau, pp. 16 and 88, and more generally the diary entries for 1911–1914.
36. For details of Rathenau’s view of economic policy, see Walther Rathenau—Gesamtausgabe, ed. Hans Dieter Hellige and Ernst Schulin. 6 vols. (Munich: G. Müller, 1977–2006).
37. Pogge von Strandmann, Walther Rathenau, p. 18. James Joll, in one of three essays on intellectuals in politics, says that the inner contradictions of Germany were mirrored in Rathenau’s own nature. James Joll, Intellectuals in Politics: Three Biographical Essays (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1960), p. 70.
CHAPTER 20: THE DYNAMICS OF DISEASE: VIRCHOW, KOCH, MENDEL, FREUD
1. New Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 7, pp. 157–161.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. For this side of Virchow, see for example, Rudolf Virchow, Das Gräberfeld von Koban in Lande der Osseten Kaukasus: Eine vergleichend-archäologische Studie (Berlin: A. Asher, 1883).
5. For the relationship between Virchow and Koch, see Frank Ryan, Tuberculosis: The Greatest Story Never Told (Bromsgrove: Swift Publishing, 1992), pp. 9f. Bernhard Möllers, Robert Koch: Persönlichkeit und Lebenswerk, 1843–1910 (Hanover: Schmorl & von Seefeld, 1950), chap. 4, pp. 93–120.
6. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, VII, pp. 420–435.
7. For Henle, see Ragnhild Münch, Robert Koch und sein Nachlass in Berlin (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2003), p. 7. And Möllers, Robert Koch, pp. 23–39.
8. For background on anthrax, see Norbert Gualde, Resistance: The Human Struggle against Infection, trans. Steven Randall (Washington, D.C.: Dana, 2006), p. 193, note 4.
9. Möllers, Robert Koch, pp. 512–517.
10. Johanna Bleker, “To Benefit the Poor and Advance Medical Science: Hospitals and Hospital Care in Germany, 1820–1870,” in Manfred Berg and Geoffrey Cocks, eds., Medicine and Modernity: Public Health and Medical Care in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Germany (Washington, D.C.: German Historical Institute/Cambridge University Press, 1997), pp. 17–33. And Möllers, Robert Koch, pp. 527–534.11. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, VII, p. 423.
12. Ryan, Tuberculosis, pp. 9–13.
13. Münch, Robert Koch, pp. 41–46 for the cholera expedition. See also Möllers, Robert Koch, pp. 139–147.
14. Thomas Dormandy, The White Death: A History of Tuberculosis (London: Hambledon, 1999), p. 132; and for their writings, Münch, Robert Koch, pp. 374 and 378.
15. Dormandy, White Death, pp. 139–144.
16. Dictionary of Scientific Biography, XIV, pp. 183–184. See also the 1978 supplement, pp. 521–524.
17. Möllers, Robert Koch, pp. 657–684.
18. See, for example, Vera Pohland, “From Positive-Stigma to Negative-Stigma: A Shift of the Literary and Medical Representation of Consumption in German Culture,” in: Rudolf Käser and Vera Pohland, eds., Disease and Medicine in Modern German Cultures (Ithaca, N.Y.: Center for International Studies, Cornell University, 1990).
19. For a note on Schaudinn, see Dormandy, White Death, pp. 199n and 265n.
20. Martha Marquardt, Paul Ehrlich (London: Heinemann, 1949), p. 160.
21. Robin Morantz Henig, A Monk and Two Peas: The Story of Greg
or Mendel and the Discovery of Genetics (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000), pp. 173ff.
22. For the context of Mendel’s discoveries, see Peter J. Bowler, The Mendelian Revolution: The Emergence of Hereditarian Concepts in Modern Science and Society (London: Athlone Press, 1989), pp. 93ff. For Klácel, see Henig, Monk and Two Peas, pp. 33–36.
23. For the breakdown he suffered in Vienna, see Henig, Monk and Two Peas, pp. 46–57.
24. Bowler, Mendelian Revolution, p. 100.
25. Ibid., p. 279.
26. Ibid., p. 280.
27. See, for example, Eileen Magnello, “The Reception of Mendelism by the Biometricians and the Early Mendelians (1899–1909),” in Milo Keynes, A. W. F. Edwards, and Robert Peel, eds., A Century of Mendelism in Human Genetics: Proceedings of a Symposium Organised by the Galton Institute and Held at the Royal Society of Medicine, London 2001 (London/Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2004), pp. 19–32.
28. Bowler, Mendelian Revolution, p. 282.
29. Guy Claxton, The Wayward Mind: An Intimate History of the Unconscious (London: Little, Brown, 2005), passim.
30. William H. Johnston, The Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 236.
31. Giovanni Costigan, Sigmund Freud: A Short Biography (London: Robert Hale, 1967), p. 42.
32. Ibid., pp. 68ff.
33. Hugo A. Meynell, Freud, Marx and Morals (Totowa, N.J.: Barnes & Noble Books, 1981).
CHAPTER 21: THE ABUSES OF HISTORY
1. Fritz Stern, The Failure of Illiberalism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1972), p. xxxvii.
2. Gordon A. Craig, Germany: 1866–1945 (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1978/1981), pp. 39ff. See also Friedrich C. Sell, Die Tragödie des deutschen Liberalismus (Baden-Baden: Nomos, 1981).
3. See for instance Giles Macdonagh, The Last Kaiser (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000/Phoenix, 2001), p. 3.
4. Craig, Germany, p. 56.
5. Theodor Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors. Based on the lecture notes of Sebastian and Pail Hensel, 1882–1886; German edition by Barbara and Alexandre Demandt; English translation by Clare Krojzl, edited and with a new chapter by Thomas Wiedemann. (London: Routledge, 1996).
6. Antoine Guilland, Modern Germany and Her Historians (Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1970), p. 156.
