by Peter Watson
7. Ibid., p. 147.
8. Ibid., p. 153.
9. Mommsen, History of Rome, p. 297.
10. Guilland, Modern Germany, p. 161.
11. Hellmut Seier, Die Staatsidee Heinrich von Sybels in den Wandlungen der Reichsgründungszeit 1826/71 (Lübeck: Matthiesen, 1961).
12. Guilland, Modern Germany, p. 185.
13. Ibid., p. 199.
14. Ibid., p. 219.
15. For another political historian, see Wilfried Nippel, Johann Gustav Droysen: Ein Leben zwischen Wissenschaft und Politik (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2008).
16. Seier, Staatsidee Heinrich von Sybels, pp. 73ff.
17. Andreas Dorpalen, Heinrich von Treitschke (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1957), pp. 29–48.
18. Ibid., pp. 226ff.
19. Charles E. McClelland, The German Historians and England: A Study in Nineteenth-Century Views (Cambridge: Cambridge Univesity Press, 1971), pp. 168ff. Guilland, Modern Germany, p. 272. See also Paul M. Kennedy, The Rise of the Anglo-German Antagonism (London: Allen & Unwin, 1980).
20. Walter Bussmann, Treitschke: Sein Welt-und Geschichtsbild (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1952). Guilland, Modern Germany, pp. 273 and 284. Hermann Baumgarten, Treitschkes deutsche Geschichte (Strassburg: K. J. Trübner, 1883).
21. Lord Acton, “German Schools of History,” English Historical Review, 1886.
22. Guilland, Modern Germany, p. 309.
23. Ernst Curtius, Olympia, mit Ausgewählten von Pindar, Pausanius, Lukian (Berlin: Atlantis Verlag, 1935), esp. pp. 67–80, but see also the excellent photographs by Martin Hürlimann.
24. Richard Stoneman, Land of Lost Gods (London: Hutchinson, 1987), p. 262.
25. Ibid.
26. Heinrich Schliemann, Selbstbiographie: Bis zu seinem Tode vervollständigt, ed. Sophie Schliemann (Wiesbaden: F. A. Brockhaus, 1955), pp. 54ff., 69ff. and 86ff.
27. Stoneman, Land of Lost Gods, p. 270.
28. Susan Heuck Allen, Finding the Walls of Troy: Frank Calvert and Heinrich Schliemann at Hissarlik (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), esp. pp. 72ff. for Calvert’s “frauds.” See also pp. 85ff.
29. Stoneman, Land of Lost Gods, p. 276.
30. For Schliemann and Dörpfeld, see Hermann von Joachim, ed., Heinrich Schliemann: Grundlagen und Ergebnisse moderner Archäologie 100 Jahre nach Schliemanns Tod (Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1992), pp. 153–160. This book comprises the proceedings of a conference called to consider Schliemann’s achievements—and his claims—a century after his death. Ernst Mayr, Heinrich Schliemann: Kaufmann und Forscher (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1969) explores Schliemann’s relations with Max Müller at Oxford, with Rudolf Virchow and Wilhelm Dörpfeld, and a number of philologists.
31. Stoneman, Land of Lost Gods, p. 283.
32. Ibid., p. 291.
CHAPTER 22: THE PATHOLOGIES OF NATIONALISM
1. Volker R. Berghahn, Militarism: The History of an International Debate; 1861–1979 (New York: Berg, 1981), p. 9.
2. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers (London: Unwin Hyman, 1988), p. 184.
3. Ibid., p. 184.
4. Nicholas Stargardt, The German Idea of Militarism: Radical and Socialist Critics 1866–1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 91ff.
5. Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, pp. 149–154.
6. Ibid., p. 211.
7. Léon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalistic Ideas in Europe (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1971/1974), p. 303.
8. Ibid., p. 211.
9. In Stargardt, The German Idea of Militarism, the author explains also “the tides of pacificism,” 1907–1914. The tide wasn’t all one way.
10. Militarism in 1914 is considered later, but see Jeffrey Verhey, The Spirit of 1914: Militarism, Myth and Mobilisation in Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000).
11. Michael B. Gross, The War against Catholicism (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004), p. 240. Christoph Weber, Kirchliche Politik zwischen Rom, Berlin und Trier 1876 bis 1888: Die Beilegung d. preuss. Kulturkampfes (Mainz: Matthias-Grünewald-Verlag, 1970).
12. Erich Schmidt-Volkmar, Der Kulturkampf in Deutschland, 1871–1890 (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1962), pp. 23–46. Gross, War against Catholicism, p. 241.
13. Schmidt-Volkmar, Kulturkampf, pp. 106–112.
14. Gross, War against Catholicism, p. 41.
15. Ibid., p. 43. Schmidt-Volkmar, Kulturkampf, pp. 106ff.
16. Gross, War against Catholicism, p. 56.
17. Ibid., p. 133.
18. Ibid., p. 69.
19. Ibid., p. 93.
20. Ibid., p. 109.
21. Ibid., pp. 158–160.
22. Ibid., p. 116.
23. Ibid., p. 213.
24. Schmidt-Volkmar, Kulturkampf, pp. 138ff.
25. Gross, War against Catholicism, p. 243.
26. Ibid., p. 254.
27. Weber, Kirchliche Politik, pp. 76–83.
28. Gross, War against Catholicism, p. 255.
29. Alfred Kelly, The Descent of Darwin: The Popularisation of Darwinism in Germany, 1860– 1914 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981), p. 5.
30. Ibid., p. 5.
31. Ibid., pp. 21–23.
32. Ibid., p. 40.
33. Ibid., p. 127.
34. Robert J. Evans, “In Search of German Social Darwinism: The History and Historiography of a Concept,” in Berg and Cocks, eds., Medicine and Modernity, pp. 55–79.
35. Kelly, Descent of Darwin, p. 105.
36. Arthur Hermann, The Idea of Decline in Western History (New York: The Free Press, 1997), p. 111.
37. For a general survey see Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c. 1848–c. 1918 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), esp. chap. 4, pp. 97–106.
38. Ibid., pp. 176–221.
39. Kelly, Descent of Darwin, p. 126.
40. Poliakov, Aryan Myth, p. 71.
41. Ibid., pp. 101–105.
42. Kelly, Descent of Darwin, p. 191.
43. Ibid., p. 242.
44. Ibid., p. 273.
45. Amos Elon, The Pity of It All: A Portrait of Jews in Germany, 1743–1933 (London: Allen Lane, Penguin Press, 2003), p. 274.
46. Stern, The Failure of Illiberalism, p. 106.
47. Kelly, Descent of Darwin, p. 128.
48. Ibid., p. 143.
49. Ibid., pp. 165–167.
50. Pick, Faces of Degeneration, p. 135.
51. Ibid.
52. Kelly, Descent of Darwin, p. 139.
53. Robert W. Lougee, Paul de Lagarde, 1827–1891: A Study of Radical Conservatism in Germany (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962), pp. 117ff.
54. Ulrich Sieg, Deutschlands Prophet: Paul de Lagarde und die Ursprünge des modernen Antisemitismus (Munich: Hanser, 2007), pp. 203–227.
55. Ibid., pp. 292–325.
56. Lougee, Paul de Lagarde, pp. 227–231.
57. Hermann, Idea of Decline, p. 54.
58. Stern, The Failure of Illiberalism, p. 4. Lougee, Op. cit., pp. 253–254.
59. Geoffrey G. Field, Evangelist of Race: The Germanic Vision of Houston Stewart Chamberlain (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981).
60. Hermann, Idea of Decline, p. 73.
61. In his letters Chamberlain had corresponded with many leading figures such as Adolf von Harnack, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Christian Ehrenfels. See Houston Stewart Chamberlain: Briefe und Briefwechsel mit Kaiser Wilhelm II (Munich: Brudmann, 1928). See also Paul Pretzsch, ed. Cosima Wagner und Houston Stewart Chamberlain im Briefwechsel 1888–1908 (Leipzig: P. Reclam jun., 1934).
62. Hermann, Idea of Decline, p. 75.
63. Stern, The Politics of Cultural Despair, pp. xx-xxi.
64. Ibid., p. xxvii.
65. Norbert Elias, The Germans: Power Struggles and the Development of Habitus in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, ed. Michael Schröter, trans. Eric Dunning and Stephen Mennell (Cambridge,
U.K.: Polity Press, 1996), pp. ix and 155.
CHAPTER 23: MONEY, THE MASSES, THE METROPOLIS: THE “FIRST COHERENT SCHOOL OF SOCIOLOGY”
1. Keith Bullivant, Realism Today: Aspects of the Contemporary West German Novel (Leamington Spa, Hamburg, and New York: Berg, 1987), pp. 8–12. Lukács, German Realists, p. 323. Hans P. Rickman, Wilhelm Dilthey: Pioneer of the Human Studies (London: Paul Elek, 1979), p. 12.
2. Rickman, Wilhelm Dilthey, p. 24.
3. Ibid., p. 38.
4. Hellmut Diwald, Wilhelm Dilthey: Erkenntnistheorie und Philosophie der Geschichte (Göttingen: Musterschmidt, 1963), pp. 130f.
5. Rickman, Wilhelm Dilthey, p. 57.
6. Ilse N. Bulhof, Wilhelm Dilthey: A Hermeneutic Approach to the Study of History and Culture (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1980), p. 55 and chapter 3.
7. Rickman, Wilhelm Dilthey, p. 70.
8. Diwald, op. cit., pp. 153–169.
9. This progression is discussed in Carlo Antoni, Vom Historismus zur Soziologie (Stuttgart: K. F. Koehler, 1950). He begins with Dilthey and includes Weber and Meinecke.
10. Rickman, Wilhelm Dilthey, pp. 150–153.
11. Ibid., p. 155.
12. Lewis Coser, Masters of Sociological Thought: Ideas in Social and Historical Context (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1977).
13. David Frisby, Georg Simmel (London: Ellis Horwood Limited and Tavistock Publications, 1984), p. 23.
14. Ibid., pp. 25–26.
15. Ibid., p. 13.
16. Ibid., p. 53.
17. Ibid., p. 71.
18. Margarete Susman, Die geistige Gestalt George Simmels (Tübingen: Mohr, 1959), which concentrates on the spiritual side of Simmel. See also Roy Pascal, From Naturalism to Expressionism: German Literature and Society 1880–1928 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1973), p. 157.
19. Hermann von Helmholtz, 1853, “On Goethe’s Scientific Researches,” lecture delivered before the German Society of Königsberg, trans. E. Atkinson. Reprinted in Hermann von Helmholtz, Science and Culture: Popular and Philosophical Essays, ed. David Cahan (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1995).
20. Frisby, Georg Simmel, p. 84.
21. Ibid., p. 93.
22. Ibid., p. 99.
23. Ibid., p. 106.
24. Fritz Ringer, Max Weber: An Intellectual Biography (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press), pp. 36 and 40.
25. Frisby, Georg Simmel, pp. 131, 132, and 148.
26. Ferdinand Tönnies, Community and Civil Society, ed. Jose Harris, trans. Jose Harris and Margaret Hollis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. viii.
27. Tönnies, Community and Civil Society, p. xii.
28. Ibid., p. xiv.
29. Ibid., p. xv.
30. Ibid., p. xvii.
31. Ibid., p. xxi.
32. Reiner Grundmann and Nico Stehr, “Why Is Werner Sombart Not Part of the Core of Classical Sociology?” Journal of Classical Sociology 1, no. 2 (2001): 257–287.
33. Werner Sombart, Luxury and Capitalism, trans. W. R. Dittmar, intro. by Philip Siegelman (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1967). In his introduction, Philip Siegelman says Weber and Sombart were the two most gifted descendants of Adam Smith, Ricardo, and Hegel.
34. Friedrich Lenger, Werner Sombart, 1863–1941: Eine Biographie (Munich: C.H. Beck, 1995), pp. 115–123. See also Bernhard vom Brocke, ed., Sombarts “Moderner Kapitalismus”: Materi-alien zur Kritik und Rezeption (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1987).
35. Grundmann and Stehr, “Why Is Werner Sombart Not Part,” p. 261.
36. At one stage he said, “Puritanism is Judaism.” See the Siegelman introduction in Sombart, Luxury and Capitalism, p. xiii.
37. Jeffrey Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture, and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
38. Grundmann and Stehr, “Why Is Werner Sombart Not Part,” p. 269. See also Ernst Nolte, Geschichtsdenken im 20. Jahrhundert: Von Max Weber bis Hans Jonas (Berlin: Propyläen, 1991), for a different trajectory and a comparison of German thinkers with French, British, and American.
39. Peter Watson, A Terrible Beauty: The People and Ideas That Shaped the Modern Mind (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2000/The Modern Mind, New York: HarperCollins, 2000), pp. 45f.
40. M. Rainer Lepsius and Wolfgang J. Mommsen, eds., Briefe Max Weber (Tübingen: Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1990–2008). The letters underline Weber’s wide range of correspondents, including Sombart, Tönnies, and Simmel.
41. Harvey Goldmann, Max Weber and Thomas Mann: Calling and the Shaping of the Self (Los Angeles and Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988). A useful comparative study.
42. Reinhard Bendix, Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait (London: Heinemann, 1960), examines China, India, and Pakistan, subjecting Weber’s concept to a critical appraisal.
43. Hartmut Lehmann and Guenther Roth, eds., Weber’s Protestant Ethic: Origin, Evidence, Context (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). See in particular Thomas Nipperdey’s essay, “Max Weber, Protestantism and the Debate around 1900,” pp. 73–82.
44. Fritz Ringer, Max Weber: An Intellectual Biography (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2004). See p. 84 for adequate causation, p. 183 for types of authority, and p. 233 for the problem of scientific specialization.
45. Keith Bullivant and Bernhard Spies, “‘Die Wiederkehr des immergleich Schlechten?’ Cultural Crises in the Work of German Writers in the Twentieth Century,” in Ferdinand van Ingen and Gerd Labroisse, eds., Literaturszene Bundesrepublik—ein Blick von Draussen (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1988), pp. 59–78.
CHAPTER 24: DISSONANCE AND THE MOST-DISCUSSED MAN IN MUSIC
1. Jan Swafford, Johannes Brahms: A Biography (London: Macmillan, 1998), p. 570.
2. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 251.
3. Ibid., p. 252.
4. See the splendid portrait in Swafford, op. cit., p. 49.
5. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 254.
6. Christine Jacobsen, ed., Johannes Brahms: Leben und Werk (Wiesbaden: Breitkopf & Härtel, 1983), pp. 36ff.
7. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 257.
8. Swafford, Johannes Brahms, p. 297. See also Daniel Beller-McKenna, Brahms and the German Spirit (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004), pp. 65ff.
9. Beller-McKenna, Brahms and the German Spirit, for Brahms’s symphonies and an incipient nationalism in the spirit of Beethoven.
10. Ibid., p. 12.
11. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 263.
12. Ibid., p. 264.
13. For his living arrangements, see Frank Walker, Hugo Wolf: A Biography (London: Dent, 1968), pp. 55ff.
14. See Walker, Hugo Wolf, chapter 10, which explores the work of Mörike and Eichendorff over many pages. See also Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, Hugo Wolf: Leben und Werk (Berlin: Henschel, 2003), pp. 399 and 445.
15. Susan Youens, Hugo Wolf: The Vocal Music (Princeton, N.J., and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 1992), p. 75.
16. For his failure to produce an opera, see Fischer-Dieskau, Hugo Wolf, pp. 358–364.
17. Walker, Hugo Wolf, p. 443 for the final illness. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 269.
18. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 274.
19. Hans Fantel, Johann Strauss, Father and Son, and Their Era (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1971), pp. 32ff.
20. Joseph Wechsberg, The Waltz Emperors: The Life and Times and Music of the Strauss Family (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson), 1973, p. 95.
21. Fantel, Johann Strauss, pp. 72ff.
22. Wechsberg, Waltz Emperors, p. 166.
23. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, pp. 278–279.
24. Ibid., pp. 379–380.
25. Franzpeter Messmer, Richard Strauss: Biographie eines Klangzauberers (Zurich: M & T Verlag, 1994), pp. 243ff.
26. Ibid., pp. 171ff.
27. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 384.
28. Charles Dowell Youmans, Richard Strauss’s Orchestral Music and the German Intellectual Tradition: The Philosophical Roots of Musical Modernism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005). Youmans locates Guntram as a turning point in Strauss’s thought, the influences here being Max Stirner and Nietzsche. See pp. 86ff.
29. Messmer, Richard Strauss, p. 313.
30. George R. Marek, Richard Strauss: The Life of a Non-Hero (London: Gollancz, 1967), p. 183.
31. Messmer, Richard Strauss, pp. 324ff.
32. Youmans, Richard Strauss’s Orchestral Music, pp. 136ff.
33. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 392.
34. Dika Newlin, Bruckner, Mahler, Schoenberg (London: Boyars, 1979), pp. 25ff.
35. Ibid., p. 35.
36. Ibid., p. 119 for the literary influences on Mahler.
37. Ibid., p. 133.
38. Alex Ross, The Rest Is Noise: Listening to the Twentieth Century (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2007), pp. 19 and 21. Schonberg, Lives of the Great Composers, p. 403.
39. William R. Everdell, The First Moderns (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1997), p. 275.
40. James K. Wright, Schoenberg, Wittgenstein and the Vienna Circle (Bern: Peter Lang, 2007), pp. 67ff.
41. Michael Cherlin, Schoenberg’s Musical Imagination (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), pp. 44ff.
42. Ross, The Rest Is Noise, p. 18.
43. Ethan Haimo, Schoenberg’s Transformation of Musical Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 245.
44. See Newlin, Bruckner, Mahler, Schoenberg, p. 214, for the “deep background” in Barcelona. And Ross, The Rest Is Noise, p. 49.
45. Newlin, Bruckner, Mahler, Schoenberg, pp. 234ff.
46. Carl Schorske, Fin-de-siècle Vienna: Politics and Culture (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1980), p. 360.
47. Ross, The Rest Is Noise, p. 52.
CHAPTER 25: THE DISCOVERY OF RADIO, RELATIVITY, AND THE QUANTUM
1. Elon, Pity of It All, p. 276.
2. Helge Kragh, Quantum Generations (Princeton, N.J., and London: Princeton University Press, 1999), p. 13.
3. Ibid., p. 3.
4. Bruce J. Hunt, The Maxwellians (Ithaca, N.Y., and London: Cornell University Press, 1991), esp. chap. 8.
5. I have used New Dictionary of Scientific Biography, vol. 3, pp. 291–294.
6. Rollo Appleyard, Pioneers of Electrical Communication (London: Macmillan, 1930), p. 114. Hunt, The Maxwellians, pp. 180–182 and 198–199.
