left-ventricular assist device, 212
protection of, 17
recurrent laryngeal nerve, 15–16
septal defect, 146–49, 147
transposed vessels, 150
hemoglobin, 55, 76–81
herniated disk, 25–27, 26
heterozygote advantage, 78, 80–81
heuristics, 164, 176
Hitler, Adolf, 195
HIV, 74, 84–85
HPV (human papillomavirus), 154
human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), 103
human nature, duality of, 194–95
human papillomavirus (HPV), 154
humans
challenges to, 208–10
extinction of, 58, 207–8
future of, 215–16
as generalists, 198
hunting, 162
Huntington’s disease, 82–83
hygiene hypothesis, 145–46
hyperopia, 3
hypoxia, 152
I
illness, 127
colds, 9, 11, 11, 127
pandemic, 207–8
See also disease
illusions, optical, 159–63, 161
immortality, 210–15
immune system, 129
allergies, 140–46
antibodies, 128, 131–33
autoimmune disorders, 129–39
development of, 145–46
training of, 142–44
immune system response, 140–41
immunosuppressants, 130, 137
income
anemia, 57
diet, 50–51, 56
obesity, 62
reproduction, 201–2
infant mortality rate, 104–6
infants, 20
fevers in, 143–44
helplessness of, 107–8
infections in, 143
See also children
infections, 73–74
infertility, 95–104
females and, 100–101
males and, 98, 99–100
prevalence of, 96
inflammation, 140–41
intelligence, human, 191–95
investments, 177–78
Iraq, occupation of, 179
iron, 54–57, 58–59
K
Kahneman, Daniel, 163
knees, 21–24, 22
L
language, survival and, 124
language acquisition, 158
larynx, 19–20
left vagus nerve, 14
left-ventricular assist device, 212
legs
Achilles tendon, 24–25
ACL, 22–24, 22, 28
ankle, 24–25, 28–29
bones in, 31
knee, 21–24, 22
Lieberman, Dan, 63n
life, alien, 203–7, 208, 209, 210
life, prolonging, 210–15
life expectancy, 118–19
lifestyle, 43–44, 62
ligaments, 22–24, 22, 28
lineups, 168–69
linoleic acid, 51
lithopedion, 116
living conditions, 128–29
lottery, 185–86
“Lucy,” 107
lungs, 17, 18
lupus, 131, 135–38
M
malaria, 78–81, 79
males
infertility, 98
puberty, 97
risk-taking, 188–91
maternal death rate, 110
math, 186–87
McClintock, Barbara, 86–87
meat, availability of, 57
memory, 167–71
eyewitness testimony, 168–69
false-memory formation, 171
trauma, 169–71
men. See males
menopause, 117–24
evolutionary purpose of, 120–24
grandmother hypothesis, 121–23
life expectancy, 118
theories of, 118–20
in whales, 123–24
mental health
autoimmune diseases, 130–31, 134, 137
infertility, 96
mesenteries, 21–22
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), 68–70
metal ions, 53
metals. See minerals
MG (myasthenia gravis), 131–33
micronutrients, essential. See vitamins
milk, 36
minerals, 36, 53–60
calcium, 54
deficiencies, 53–55, 59
elemental vs. ionized forms, 53
iron, 54–57, 58–59
iron deficiencies, 55
need for, 59–60
potassium, 53
sodium, 53
miscarriage, 102
Mohrman, Gregory, 153–54
money, 172–77, 182
monkeynomics, 183
mortality rates, 97, 104–6
motion, sensation of, 160–63
mRNA (messenger ribonucleic acid), 68–69
mucus membranes, 9
mutagens, 70
mutations, 72
beneficial, 90–92
cancer, 155
described, 70
disease, 76
failure to eliminate, 71, 72
favored by natural selection, 75–81
harmful, 71
heritable, 71
high-impact, 33
need for, 156
polygamy, 80–81
random, 32–33, 32
myasthenia gravis (MG), 131–33
myopia, 2–3
N
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 131
natural selection, 74, 155, 201
nearsightedness, 2–3
neck, 14, 17–20
nerves
recurrent laryngeal nerve, 13–17, 14, 16
superior laryngeal nerve, 15
vagus nerve, 14, 14
nucleotides, 66
numbers, 186–87
nutrients
amino acids, 48–52
minerals, 53–60
removal of, 46
See also diet; food; vitamins
O
obesity, 60–63
octopi, retina of, 6–7, 7
opsin gene, 91
optic disk, 8
optic nerve, 8
optical illusions, 159–63, 161
orcas, 123–24
osteoporosis, 41, 54
ovulation, 100–101
P
pandemic, 207–8
parenting, communal, 109
pelvis, remnants of, 31–32
perfection, impossibility of, 198
photoreceptors, 4, 5, 7
Pirahã tribe, 186–87
plants
iron extraction, 56, 57
in prehistoric diet, 57
self-sufficiency of, 48–49
Pleistocene epoch, 159, 160, 184, 200
plumbing, 128
polygamy, 80–81
polyphenols, 57
population, 128, 201–2, 207
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 170–71
posture, 23, 23, 26, 192–93
potassium, 53
poverty
anemia, 57
diet, 50–51, 56
obesity, 62
reproduction, 201–2
pregnancy
abdominal pregnancy, 115
anemia, 55
ectopic pregnancy, 112–17
lithopedion, 116
miscarriage, 102
pseudopregnancy, 102
risks of, 110–17
presbyopia, 3
pricing, false, 181–82
primates, nonhuman, 12, 21
problems, odds of experiencing, 149
pseudogenes, 39
GULO, 39–41, 72, 73
infections and, 73–74
mutation rate of, 72–73
resurrection of, 75
pseudopregnancy, 102
psychology, economic, 183
/>
PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder), 170–71
R
radio signals, 203–4
recessive traits, 77–79
recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN), 13–17, 14, 16
red blood cells, 55
See also sickle cell disease
reproduction, 93–125
birth spacing, 108–10
birthrates, 201–2
childbirth, 97, 104–6, 107, 110–12
competition, 200–201
conception, 101–3
design of, 117
drive to, 94
ectopic pregnancies, 112–17
eggs, 71, 85, 112–13
factors influencing, 201–2
female reproductive system, 115, 119–20
follicles, 119–20
gestation time, 106
helper wolves, 95
implantation, 103–4
inefficiency of, 94–95, 117
infant mortality rate, 104–6
infertility, 95–104
menopause, 117–24
nonrandom, 201–3
ovulation, 100–101
prolific, 93–94
pseudopregnancy, 102
puberty, 97
risks of, 110–17
sexual maturity, 96–98
sperm, 71, 85, 98–100, 113
See also pregnancy
reproductive senescence, 118–24
resources
competition for, 122, 194–95
domination of, 183
scarcity of, 207, 214
retinas, 4, 5–7, 7, 37, 161–62
retroviruses, 84–86, 87
rheumatoid arthritis, 131
rice polishing, 46
rickets, 41–44, 42
risk-taking, 187–91
RLN (recurrent laryngeal nerve), 13–17, 14, 16
S
salary negotiation, 180
Santos, Laurie, 183
sauropod dinosaurs, 16, 17
SCD (sickle cell disease), 40, 76–81, 77, 79
science, risks to humanity and, 215–16
scurvy, 38, 39, 56, 72, 73
Selfish Gene, The (Dawkins), 89
selfishness, 209
septal defect, 146–49, 147
7SL, 87–88
sexual maturity, 96–98
sexual selection, 189–91
sickle cell disease (SCD), 40, 76–81, 77, 79
sight. See vision
sinuses, 8–13, 11
sitting, upright, 21–22
skulls, 8–13, 11, 30
smell, 12
snouts, in mammals, 12
social groups, 121–23
social issues, supporting positions on, 186
sodium, 53
speech, 20
sperm, 113
infertility, 98–100
mutations in, 71
retroviruses, 85
swimming by, 98–99, 99
spinal column, 25–27
spontaneous revertants, 32
squid, retina of, 6–7, 7
starvation, 51, 61–62
statistics, vs. anecdotes, 185–86
stem cells, 211–12
stocks, 177–78
stone baby, 116
Story of the Human Body, The (Lieberman), 63n
Strange, Deryn, 170
strife, 194–95, 207
sunk-costs fallacy, 177–79, 183
sunlight exposure, 42–43
superfoods, 50
superior laryngeal nerve, 15
supplements, 35–36
supraprimates, 88
swallowing, 19–20
T
T cells, 84–85
tailbone, 30
tails, 30
technology, 199, 210–14
tendons, 24–25
TEs (transposable elements), 86–89
theta defensin, 73–74
thiamine, 45–47
Thinking, Fast and Slow (Kahneman), 164
Thomas, Lewis, 156
throat, 17–19
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), 133
tidal breathing, 18
toes, extra, 33
touch, human reliance on, 12
trachea, 17, 20
transplants, 212
transposable elements (TEs), 86–89
trauma, memory and, 169–71
travel, interstellar, 206, 209
trichromacy, 91–92
TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone), 133
type 2 diabetes, 63
U
universe, life in, 203–7, 208, 209, 210
upper respiratory infections, 9
upright walking, 21, 23, 25–27, 192–93
urbanization, 128
V
vagus nerve, 14, 14
valuation, 171–77, 179–84
vegans, 44, 50
vegetarians, 56, 58
vertebrae, 17, 25–27
vestigial structures, 30, 31–33
violence, 194–95
viruses, 84–86
cancer and, 154
lupus and, 138
protection from, 136
vision
color vision, 4–5, 90–92
flicker fusion threshold, 161–62
human reliance on, 12
nearsightedness, 2–3
night vision, 4
optical illusions, 159–63, 161
vitamin A, 37–38
vitamin C, 37–41, 56, 72
vitamin D, 37–38, 41–44, 42, 54
vitamin E, 38
vitamin K, 45
vitamins, 36–48
B vitamins, 37–38, 43, 44–47
deficiencies, 37, 38–44, 42, 43, 45–47, 56, 72, 73
production of, 44–45, 47
vitamin A, 37–38
vitamin C, 37–41, 56, 72
vitamin D, 37–38, 41–44, 42, 54
vitamin E, 38
vitamin K, 45
vitamins B1-B12, 37–38, 43, 44–47
vocalizations, 20
voice box, 19–20
W
walking, upright, 21, 23, 25–27, 192–93
weight, 60–63
whales
breathing by, 19
menopause and, 117, 123–24
remnants of pelvis in, 32
women. See females
World Health Organization (WHO), 55
wrist, 28
Y
youth, 187–91
About the Author
Nathan H. Lents is a professor of biology at John Jay College, CUNY, and the author of Not So Different: Finding Human Nature in Animals. He has appeared as a scientific expert in a range of national media, including Today, NPR, Access Hollywood, 48 Hours, and Al Jazeera America. He lives in Queens, New York.
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Footnotes
* We must except from this statement dog breeds with truncated snouts, such as Pekingese and pugs. These are the product of intense artificial selection by human breeding, not natural selection. In fact, most health problems suffered by dogs in general are the result of recent selective inbreeding and not common in their wolf ancestors.
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* I highly recommend Dan Lieberman’s book The Story of the Human Body, which explains at great length the many ways in which the mismatch between our current environment and our former one leads to illness and disease.
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* In 2012, the massive genome-exploring project called ENCODE made a big splash by claiming that up to 80 percent of the human genome was functional. This claim has been soundly refuted, owing partially to methodological concerns but mostly to researchers’ unscientific criteria for declaring a part of the genome functional. This has led many scientists to revisit and defend the use of the term junk to describe nonfu
nctional DNA. See Graur et al., “On the Immortality of Television Sets,” Genome Biology and Evolution5 (2013): 578–90, for an excellent explanation of the flawed reasoning of the ENCODE claims.
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Human Errors Page 24
