Figure 3-2: Maya mathematics were vigesimal, or based on 20, and not 10 like our mathematics. Image by Alex Tuan Nguyen.
Tool Fabrication
Maya technology overcame the lack of native metallic ore. They developed specialized tools, harder than iron, for the fine working of stone and wood. These tools enabled Maya technicians and artists to create great works of finely detailed art and architecture. Specialized tools fabricated from jadeite, a material harder that steel, enabled Maya builders and artisans to construct structures of grand architecture replete with finely carved stone friezes. They made the world’s sharpest cutting blades from obsidian, a volcanic glass. This Maya technology has extended to contemporary medical practice: obsidian is currently used for scalpels in surgery.
Hydraulic Cement and Cast-in-Place Concrete
Maya technicians invented the methodology for producing hydraulic cement from native limestone. This cement was used as the basis for the production of cast-in-place concrete, which was used to construct strong and durable structures that were the hallmarks of Classic Maya cities. Cement was also the base material for the stucco that coated the Maya structures and the mortar that was vital to the construction of masonry structures. Cement was the technological “glue” used to hold the Maya cities together and enabled their structures to withstand 2,000 years of a harsh environment. This technologically innovative material enabled Maya high rise cities to remain standing today as a tribute to the glory of Maya technology.
Long-Span and High-Rise Structures
The Classic Maya cities were the world’s most populous of their time in history. High-rise buildings reaching into the tropical sky presented a spectacular profile against the backdrop of the rainforest canopy. These momentous landmarks would not have been possible to construct without the structural mechanisms developed by Maya engineers. These innovative technicians invented the vaulted arch, high-rise structural systems, and other mechanisms that enabled the construction of long-span, high-rise buildings which characterized the skyline of Maya power centers.
Figure 3-3: Maya developed one of the world’s five original written languages. Illustration by Mark Van Stone.
Water-Management Systems
The Maya population and its grand cities existed in a harsh natural environment that divided the year into wet and dry seasons. In response, they developed a series of unique technical solutions to satisfy the constant threat of thirst for the large cities, as well as water for agriculture irrigation systems. Maya engineering solutions included shaped cityscapes designed to divert storm water into storage facilities, underground reservoirs for urban water supplies, water filtration systems, and efficient irrigation systems for agriculture. These civil engineering systems enabled the survival and prosperity of the Maya power centers.
The Maya Superhighway System
The difficulty of travel through the tangled roots of the dense jungle environment was a laborious effort that was made more difficult by the quagmire created during the rainy season. An efficient all-weather transport system was absolutely necessary to maintain levels of power and wealth, while operating an efficient government for the city-states. To solve transport issues relating to commerce, military movements, agriculture, and general travelers, Maya engineers developed a system of elevated paved highways that connected their power centers. All-weather roads, known as sacbeob (singular sacbe), or “white roads,” provided the Maya with a reliable road system that could be used as year-round transportation. Hundreds of miles of these roads were constructed during the Classic Period.
Maya Bridge Engineering
The rainy season brought needed storm water for replenishment of precious water supplies in the cities and for irrigation in the hinterlands. However, the rainy season, with its heavy amount of storm water, caused flooded rivers for a period of six months. Maya engineering rose to the occasion by producing creative bridge designs of various types and spans, including cast-in-place concrete bridges, timber bridges, and long-span rope or cable suspension bridges that crossed broad flooded rivers. The Maya constructed a long-span suspension bridge across the wild Usumacinta River at the city of Yaxchilan. This bridge, constructed with a center span of 63 meters, is considered to be the longest bridge in the ancient world.
The Maya Transportation System
The North American continent and the area of the Maya world did not evolve native animals that could be domesticated as beasts of burden. The horse, oxen, and other beasts of burden were European imports to the Americas. However, large amounts of manpower were available for power applications. Maya technology understood the principle of the wheel, using them on toys, but the wheel was not viable for use on carts using manpower. Instead, they creatively developed man-powered transport systems that were more efficient and economical than animal-powered transport. The adventurous and resourceful Maya were also sea traders who developed seagoing cargo vessels that enabled long-range trade routes.
How Did They Know What They Knew?
Epistemology is the study of the nature, methods, and validity of knowledge and belief. It deals with the production of knowledge and asks the question, How do we know what we know? In the case of the scientific knowledge of the Maya, the question can be asked, How did they know what they knew? A hypothesis could be developed that argues the stimulus for the development of knowledge can be assumed to be their belief in a quadripartite cosmic philosophy. Further, the Maya had real time working in their favor; they efficiently applied 1,500 years of Pre-Classic and 600 years of Classic Period studies to elevate their knowledge of the sciences.
The methods used by the Maya to acquire new levels knowledge are familiar to scientists and researchers today. These techniques include the scientific method, heuristic methodologies, a priori knowledge, and comparative studies. These methods were applied to enhance the development of the basic scientific disciplines espoused by the Maya. Additionally, comparative studies, similar to logic developed by modern anthropologists, are theories based on the discovery that different cultures on similar levels of cultural complexity will solve similar solutions when faced with similar problems. This includes the invention of writing and mathematics when the society has reached a level that requires these knowledge tools
When considering the wealth of scientific disciplines cultivated by the Maya, astronomy was obviously the first of the sciences to be developed. The light show featuring heavenly orbs shining above the Maya world were on revue on a nightly basis millions of years before their time. The dazzling sight of the light show filled the ancient observers with wonder and fascination. The Maya studied the galaxy for centuries and embedded the complexities of the cosmos into their accumulated knowledge.
The results of astronomical studies and observations were first transmitted by oral tradition. The movement of planets eclipses of the sun and moon, as well as the names of stars, planets, and constellations, were passed down by orally until writing was developed. Astronomical knowledge was enhanced during the centuries of the Pre-Classic Period, and Maya astronomers pooled their ideas, enabling them to generate intellectual concepts of the qualities and quantities of time and introduce this concept into their philosophy of life.
The process of counting the days and years of astral periods led to the development of mathematics. The study of astronomy and calendrics spawned and stimulated a need for numerical recordkeeping. This led to the manipulation of numbers for mathematical computations of astral cycles and time periods, and then evolved into a complete mathematical system. Initially, mathematics used the dot and bar symbology, but advancement in the capabilities and complexities of mathematical functions such as the application of negative numbers required the introduction of the number zero, so the shell symbol came into being. It is interesting that this symbol forming an oval shape representing “nothing” is very similar to the Arabic symbol for zero, which has been adopted by international mathematicians. It has been suggested that the basic mathematical symbols were
derived by the use of a pebble for a single unit and a line or stick to represent five units. This use of only two symbols was practical when low value numbers were involved, but the system of pebbles and bars became cumbersome when large numbers were enumerated.
Maya mathematicians used their intellect to develop more concise methods of interpreting and recording large numbers. Recordkeeping methodologies could have taken several formats, including the use of slates for marking the counts of days, then stucco walls marked with graphite crayons serving as tote boards for recording larger tallies of heavenly activities. As time passed, necessity ultimately led to the invention of paper, symbology, and the ink brush, and the development of the book for recordkeeping. This led to the production of numerous books relating to various matters and gave rise to the libraries
The need to express large array numbers led to the development of the positional mathematical system, in which each vertical level of mathematical notation was increased 20 fold. This system permitted Maya mathematicians to raise their calculations to 160,000 after five levels, to 3,200,000 after six levels, and to 64,000,000 after seven levels. The application of this method of calculations led to concise calculations that would require minimum space on a leaf of paper. With the positional number system and the concept of the number zero, it became possible to calculate and project time periods millions of years into the future and calculate negative umbers representing millions of years into the past.
The tie that bound the integral sciences together was the development of a precise written script. This script intertwined astronomy, mathematics, and the narratives required to record the activities of Maya science in order to provide students and future generations with guidelines and direction for the application of science, laws, and practical matters. The production of subsequent written records was not maintained by a single person but by generations of sky-watchers. As their corpus of knowledge grew, the specialists in astronomy developed the need to accurately describe the motions of astral bodies. The scenario for the development of Maya script paralleled the sciences of astronomy and mathematics. Both sciences required sophisticated symbology for recording the cycles of astral bodies, recordkeeping, calculations, mathematics results, and practical terminology.
The development of the script could have started as a method for naming astral bodies, stars, and constellations, and then evolved to include numbers relating to periods of time and other astronomical terminologies. As part of learning to interpret the symbols used to describe an activity, the reader became a party in the development of the symbology. The contribution of new symbols to the corpus of known and accepted symbols introduced new concepts and enhanced the script into an efficient communication system. The symbols served to objectify the elements of astronomy, mathematics, history, and the other sciences. The creative power of scientific terms and words converted to symbols enhanced the scope and abilities of the script as a medium of communication. The dissemination of the Maya script, acceptance of known symbols, and introduction of new symbols caused the script to evolve into a concise, phonetic written language. The scientific arts, philosophical ideas, and conventional discourse communicated by the Maya script enabled permanent recording of these concepts for contemporary use and future application for the intellectual elite, power elite, technological society, and merchant classes.
The Maya script, calendar, and mathematics were developed prior to the Classic Period. The first known Maya script was from 250 BC and was found on painted walls in San Bartolo in Guatemala. At this time, the Maya script, system of mathematics, astronomical sciences, and cosmic philosophy appeared to be fully formed. There is little evidence of the formative stages of Maya script or other sciences.
This scenario describing the development of the Maya scientific society is based on research, comparative studies, and knowledge of Maya achievements, tracing it from a group of from ancient sky-watchers, to fledgling scientists, to interdisciplinary scientists. It is apparent that as the sciences developed through the Pre-Classic Period, Maya society became more stratified and sophisticated as the classes of power elite, intellectual elite, the class of specialists, as well as a merchant class grew into prominence. With their growing sophistication and wealth, Maya villages grew into towns, the towns expanded into cities, and the cities blossomed into the world’s largest urban centers, which were built and maintained with sophisticated, innovative technology.
4
What Are Stone Age People Doing With the Number Zero?
World-famous archaeologists have described the Maya civilization using various retrogressive anthropological terminologies including Stone Age culture, early Neolithic Age culture, and brilliant aboriginal people. Yet, the question may be asked, If the Maya were an aboriginal, Neolithic culture without metallurgy or practical use of the wheel, what were they doing with a mathematical system of exquisite refinement, other pure sciences, and technical capabilities that surpassed that of Western civilization by more than a millennium? The archaeological classification of the Maya as a Stone Age people compares this civilization with a cultural time period that had terminated in Europe some 10,000 years before the golden age of the Maya. Is the classification of the Maya as a Stone Age culture the fault of the Maya for not having a natural source of metal available for tool fabrication, or is it due to a flaw in the standard archaeological nomenclature for defining the cultural and technical sophistication of a society with the material used to manufacture tools, weapons, and other implements?
Archeology has adopted a badly skewed nomenclature for the classification of ancient cultures, but then how do you classify a unique culture that prospered long after the fall of the Roman Empire and was ascending to greatness when Europe was wallowing in a period of political disarray and educational morass? Furthermore, this lost civilization was discovered intact with its art, architecture, and literature preserved for collection and study by scientific disciplines. The answer to the intellectual levels and achievements of the Maya are well known, but the classification of their technological level has not been upgraded.
This archaeological nomenclature for the classification of cultures includes a three-age system of developmental levels, with subsequent ages identified by the type of material used to fabricate tools and weapons used by that culture. This archaeological nomenclature was not derived from the collected wisdom of archaeological studies, but was adopted from a system of age classification used to curate the ancient tools and weapons at a 19th-century Danish national museum. This work was developed during the early beginnings of archaeology and today is still part of the basic conceptual imagery of defining the intellectual level of a culture.
The Growth of Archaeology and Its Audience
The discipline of archaeology had roots that grew out the interests of a few erudite scholars. The initiation of the study of antiquities began more than 500 years ago and has maturated into a well-respected field of study, one that has captured the imagination and interest of the public, caught up in the thrill of archaeological discoveries. The studies of classical antiquity emerged in Italy during the 15th-century Renaissance. Initially the interest in antiquities was purely literary. This interest led to the desire to identify the actual sites of the references in the texts. During the 16th century, architects were exploring the ruins of Roman buildings and collecting ancient statues to embellish the palaces of their patrons. Antiquarian research resulted in the excavation of Herculaneum in 1709 and Pompeii in 1748.
Classical antiquity aroused the intense curiosity of scholars across Europe. Scholars wrote volumes that proved to be milestones in art history, with narratives and illustrations of monuments with origins in ancient cultures. Meanwhile, individuals and government collectors looted the sites in Italy and Greece of vases, statues, sections of buildings, and other antiquities.
The organized scientific study of ancient civilizations began with Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798, allegedly to conduct a comprehensive survey
of Egypt antiquities. In 1799, the French brought 167 archaeologists and scientists to the region. The most noted archaeological finding of the survey was the discovery of the Rosetta Stone. This Ptolemaic Era stele is composed of granodiorite and carved with a bilingual inscription in ancient Egyptian, in both hieroglyphic and demonic script, and the same passage written in ancient Greek characters. The Rosetta Stone became the possession of the British in 1801, as part of the Treaty of Alexandria; it was transported to London, and placed in the British Museum.
Credit for the first full translation of the Rosetta Stone was carried out by the French scholar Jean François Champollion in 1824. The feat earned him a place in history, and his name is a synonym for code breakers. He became the patron saint of epigraphers, and the Rosetta Stone became an icon of epigraphy. The breaking of the code of the mysterious Egyptian hieroglyphics caught the attention of the public.
The Rosetta Stone was not the only archaeological discovery that interested the world. Many more followed. Heinrich Schliemann (1822–1887) is justly hailed as the founder of Aegean archaeology. Fueled by a large business fortune, Schliemann could afford to pursue his passion for archaeology. Convinced of the accuracy of the Homeric epics, he carried out excavations identified in the epic poems. His pioneering paved the way for excavation of long series of Pre-Classic sites. Schliemann’s discovery of Troy and the romance of finding the jewelry of Helen of Troy held the public in rapture.
The 1842 discovery of the lost pre-Colombian Maya civilization caught the interest of the world and ignited the imagination of the reading public. The chatty narrative of John Lloyd Stephens and the meticulous drawings of Frederick Catherwood are some the finest pre-photographic records of archaeology. The two-volume sets of their discoveries became runaway best-sellers, spreading across the globe and rewriting history. Similarly, the discovery of the boy-king Tutankhamun’s tomb in 1922 by archaeologist Howard Carter caught the world’s fancy. Archaeology began to mature, and with its maturation brought a growing market demand for books, films, and touristic visitations to archaeological sites.
The Lost Secrets of Maya Technology Page 8
