107. Axtell, The Invasion Within, pp. 285-6. For an example of the ways in which Puritan teaching could successfully be blended with Indian beliefs and traditions, see David J. Silverman, `Indians, Missionaries, and Religious Translation: Creating Wampanoag Christianity in Seventeenth-Century Martha's Vineyard', WMQ, 3rd set., 62 (2005), pp. 141-74.
108. Cited by Canup, Out of the Wilderness, p. 167.
109. Thomas Morton, New English Canaan (1632), in Force, Tracts, 2, no. 11, p. 77.
110. Vaughan, New England Frontier, p. 245.
111. For the Valladolid debate, see Lewis Hanke, All Mankind is One (DeKalb, IL, 1974), and his Spanish Struggle for Justice, ch. 8. Also Losada, Fray Bartolome' de Las Casas, ch. 13. The literature on Las Casas is now vast, but see in particular Pagden, Fall of Natural Man, for his views and those of Sepulveda in the general context of the sixteenth-century Spanish debate on the nature of the Indian.
112. Woodrow Borah, Justice by Insurance. The General Indian Court of Colonial Mexico and the Legal Aides of the Half-Real (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1983), pp. 80-2.
113. Stafford Poole, Juan de Ovando. Governing the Spanish Empire in the Reign of Philip II (Norman, OK, 2004), pp. 154-6.
114. Bartolome de Las Casas, Tears of the Indians (repr. Williamstown, MA, 1970). For a modern translation, see Bartolome de Las Casas, A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, trans. and ed. Nigel Griffin (Harmondsworth, 1992).
115. Borah, Justice by Insurance, p. 64.
116. Vaughan, New England Frontier, pp. 190-5; Katherine Hermes, "`Justice Will be Done Us." Algonquian Demands for Reciprocity in the Courts of European Settlers', in Tomlins and Mann (eds), The Many Legalities of Early America, pp. 123-49.
117. Merrell, `Indians and Colonists', pp. 144-6.
118. William B. Taylor, Drinking, Homicide and Rebellion in Colonial Mexican Villages (Stanford, CA, 1979), pp. 105-6.
119. See Lepore, The Name of War, pp. 158-67.
120. Cited from William Hubbard, General History of New England (1680), by Canup, Out of the Wilderness, p. 74.
121. Columbus, journal, p. 31(3 October 1492).
122. Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black (1968; repr. Baltimore, 1969), pp. 6-9.
123. Juan Lopez de Velasco, Geografia y description universal de las Indias, ed. Justo Zaragoza (Madrid, 1894) p. 27; Strachey, The Historie of Travell into Virginia, p. 70.
124. Gomara, Historic general, BAE, 22, p. 289.
125. See Karen Ordahl Kupperman, `The Puzzle of the American Climate in the Early Colonial Period', AHR, 87 (1982), pp. 1262-89. For climatic determinism in Spanish America see Jorge Canizares-Esguerra, `New World, New Stars: Patriotic Astrology and the Invention of Indian and Creole Bodies in Colonial Spanish America, 1600-1650', AHR, 104 (1999), pp. 33-68.
126. Richard NY11962), (Ithaca, p. 56. Wright B. Louis ed. (1624), Plantations to Pathway Plain A Eburne,
127. Joseph Perez, Histoire de l'Espagne (Paris, 1996), p. 79.
128. Miguel Angel de Buries Ibarra, La imagen de los musulmanes y del norte de Africa en la Espana de los siglos XVI y XVII (Madrid, 1989), p. 113.
129. Quoted from Sir John Davies, Discovery of the True Causes why Ireland was never Entirely Subdued (1612), by James Muldoon, `The Indian as Irishman', Essex Institute Historical Collections, 111 (1975), pp. 267-89, at p. 269 (spelling modernized).
130. For the Statutes of Kilkenny and Anglo-Irish intermarriage, Muldoon, `The Indian as Irishman', p. 284; A. Cosgrove, `Marriage in Medieval Ireland', in A. Cosgrove (ed.), Marriage in Ireland (Dublin, 1985), p. 35; John Darwin, `Civility and Empire', in Peter Burke, Brian Harrison and Paul Slack (eds), Civil Histories. Essays Presented to Sir Keith Thomas (Oxford, 2000), p. 322.
131. For the degree of `gaelicization' of English settlers in Ireland, see James Lydon, `The Middle Nation', in James Lydon (ed.), The English in Medieval Ireland (Dublin, 1984), pp. 1-26.
132. For the general question of the fear of degeneration among English settlers in America, see Canup, Out of the Wilderness, especially ch. 1, and his `Cotton Mather and "Creolian Degeneracy"', Early American Literature, 24 (1989), pp. 20-34.
133. Morton, New English Canaan (Force, Tracts, 2, no. 11, p. 19).
134. Cited by H. C. Porter, The Inconstant Savage (London, 1979), p. 203. I am grateful to Alden Vaughan for pointing out to me in a private communication that Hugh Peter, who had lived through the Pequot War in New England, made the transposition in the context of his recommendations for the conquest of Ireland. The interchangeability between Irish and Indians clearly worked both ways.
135. Spenser, Works, 9, p. 96, cited by Muldoon, `The Indian as Irishman', pp. 275-6 (spelling modernized).
136. William Symonds, Virginia Britannia, in Brown, Genesis of the United States, 1, pp. 287 and 290.
137. Cited by David D. Smits, "`We are not to Grow Wild": Seventeenth-Century New England's Repudiation of Anglo-Indian Intermarriage', American Indian Culture and Research journal, 11 (1987), pp. 1-32, at p. 6 (spelling modernized).
138. For the distinction between the Genesis and Exodus types of emigration, see Avihu Zakai, Exile and Kingdom. History and Apocalypse in the Puritan Migration to America (Cambridge, 1992), pp. 9-10.
139. Canup, Out of the Wilderness, pp. 79-80. As Conrad Russell kindly pointed out to me, colonists would also have been well aware of the dreadful warning against marriage between the Israelites and the Midianites in the story of Phinehas (Numbers: 25).
140. David D. Smits, "`We are not to Grow Wild"', pp. 3 and 6, and "Abominable Mixture": Toward the Repudiation of Anglo-Indian Intermarriage in Seventeenth-Century Virginia', The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography, 95 (1987), pp. 157-92.
141. Robert Beverley, The History and Present State of Virginia, ed. Louis B. Wright (Chapel Hill, NC, 1947), p. 38.
142. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, pp. 12-13.
143. Magnus Morner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston, 1967), p. 26.
144. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, doc. 28 (15 October 1514). See also Alberto M. Salas, Cronica florida del mestizaje de las Indias (Buenos Aires, 1960), pp. 54-5.
145. `Carta colectiva de los franciscanos de Mexico al Emperador', 1 Sept. 1526, in Fray Toribio de Benavente o Motolinia, Memoriales o libro de las cosas de la Nueva Espana y de los naturales de ella, ed. Edmundo O'Gorman (Mexico City, 1971), p. 429.
146. Cited by Salas, Cronica florida, p. 56.
147. See Donald Chipman, `Isabel Moctezuma: Pioneer of Mestizaje', in David G. Sweet and Gary B. Nash (eds), Struggle and Survival in Colonial America (Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, 1981), ch. 11.
148. Angel Rosenblat, La poblacion indigena y el mestizaje en America (2 vols, Buenos Aires, 1954), 2, pp. 60-2.
149. Otte, Cartas privadas, p. 61.
150. MOrner, Race Mixture, p. 55.
151. Ann Marie Plane, Colonial Intimacies. Indian Marriage in Early New England (Ithaca, NY and London, 2000), p. 36.
152. Gary B. Nash, `The Hidden History of Mestizo America', The Journal of American History, 82 (1995), pp. 941-62.
153. Canny and Pagden (eds), Colonial Identity, pp. 145-6.
154. Elman R. Service, Spanish-Guarani Relations in Early Colonial Paraguay (1954; repr. Westport, CT, 1971), pp. 19-20; and see a Jesuit's report of 1620, cited in CHLA, 2, p. 76.
155. See Solange Alberto, Les Espagnols dans le Mexique colonial. Histoire d'une acculturation (Paris, 1992) for Spanish-Indian interaction.
156. For segregation policies, Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 196-7. For an excellent general survey of cultural mestizaje, see Carmen Bernand and Serge Gruzinski, Histoire du nouveau monde (2 vols, Paris, 1991-3), vol. 2 (Les Metissages).
157. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, dot. 183.
158. Lockhart, The Nahuas, ch. 7.
159. Farriss, Maya Society, pp. 111-12.
160. Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 200-4; Emma Martinell Gifre, La comunicacion entre espanoles
e indios. Palabras y gestos (Madrid, 1992), pp. 188-93.
161. Bailyn and Morgan (eds.), Strangers within the Realm, pp. 128-30.
162. See Richard Morse, `Towards a Theory of Spanish American Government', Journal of the History of Ideas, 15 (1954), pp. 71-93.
163. `Letter of Sir Francis Wyatt, Governor of Virginia, 1621-1626', WMQ, 2nd set., 6 (1926), pp. 114-21.
164. See Kupperman, Settling with the Indians, pp. 175-80.
165. Thomas, Conquest of Mexico, pp. 163-4.
166. Nicholas Canny, `The Permissive Frontier: the Problem of Social Control in English Settlements in Ireland and Virginia 1550-1650', in Andrews, et al. (eds), The Westward Enterprise, pp. 30-5.
167. Powell, Soldiers, Indians, ch. 11.
168. Weber, Spanish Frontier, p. 107.
169. Ramon A. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away. Marriage, Sexuality and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1800 (Stanford, CA, 1991), p. 103; Spicer, Cycles of Conquest, p. 301.
Chapter 4. Exploiting American Resources
1. See Columbus's description of Cuba on his first voyage, in Columbus, Journal, p. 59; and, for a general overview, Hugh Honour, The New Golden Land. European Images of America from the Discoveries to the Present Time (New York, 1975).
2. For Columbus's `rivers of gold' see Thomas, Rivers of Gold, p. 122.
3. Antonello Gerbi, 11 mito del Peru (Milan, 1988), p. 29.
4. Cited Honour, The New Golden Land, p. 18.
5. The Cambridge Economic History of the United States, ed. Stanley L. Engerman and Robert E. Gallman, 1, The Colonial Era (Cambridge, 1996), p. 95; and, for Indian land-use in general, Cronon, Changes in the Land.
6. For initial English expectations of the new American environment and gradual adaptation to its realities, see Kupperman, `The Puzzle of the American Climate'.
7. For the `archipelago' pattern of Andean settlement and the system of vertical control, see especially John V. Murra, Formaciones economicas y politicas del mundo andino (Lima, 1975), and his 'Andean Societies Before 1532', CHLA, 1, ch. 3.
8. For the `plunder economy' of the 1530s-1560s in Peru, see Karen Spalding, Huarochiri. An Andean Society under Inca and Spanish Rule (Stanford, CA, 1984), p. 109.
9. Cited in Jose Durand, La transformation social del conquistador (2 vols, Mexico City, 1953), 1, pp. 41-2.
10. Arturo Warman, La historia de un bastardo. Maiz y capitalismo (Mexico City, 1988), p. 27; MacLeod, Spanish Central America, p. 18.
11. Alberro, Les Espagnols dans le Mexique colonial, pp. 46-9.
12. John C. Super, Food, Conquest, and Colonization in Sixteenth-Century Spanish America (Albuquerque, NM, 1988), pp. 32-7; Arnold J. Bauer, Goods, Power, History. Latin America's Material Culture (Cambridge, 2001), pp. 86-90.
13. Cronon, Changes in the Land, pp. 154-5; Jack P. Greene, Pursuits of Happiness. The Social Development of Early Modern British Colonies and the Formation of American Culture (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1988), p. 86; Horn, Adapting to a New World, p. 144 and, for `chiefest Diett', 278.
14. Super, Food, Conquest, and Colonization, p. 19.
15. Francois Chevalier, La Formation des grands domains an Mexique (Paris, 1952), p. 66.
16. William H. Dusenberry, The Mexican Mesta (Urbana, IL, 1963).
17. Charles Julian Bishko, `The Peninsular Background of Latin American Cattle Ranching', HAHR, 32 (1952), pp. 491-515; Chevalier, La Formation, part 1, ch. 3; Robert G. Keith, Conquest and Agrarian Change. The Emergence of the Hacienda System on the Peruvian Coast (Cambridge, MA and London, 1976), p. 60.
18. Keith, Conquest and Agrarian Change, pp. 92-105.
19. Pierre Chaunu, L'Amerique et les Ameriques (Paris, 1964), p. 92.
20. Wood, New England's Prospect, pp. 35, 37, 38.
21. Enrique Otte, Las perlas del Caribe. Nueva Cadiz de Cubagua (Caracas, 1977).
22. Richard L. Lee, 'American Cochineal in European Commerce, 1526-1635', Journal of Modern History, 23 (1951), pp. 205-24. For the history of cochineal see Amy Butler Greenfield, A Perfect Red. Empire, Espionage, and the Quest for the Color of Desire (New York, 2005).
23. MacLeod, Spanish Central America, ch. 10; Chevalier, La Formation, pp. 87-9.
24. MacLeod, Spanish Central America, ch. 5.
25. Antonio de Leon Pinelo, Question moral si el chocolate quebranta el ayuno eclesiastico (Madrid, 1636; facsimile edn, Mexico City, 1994).
26. David Watts, The West Indies. Patterns of Development, Culture and Environmental Change since 1492 (Cambridge, 1987), pp. 125-6; Frank Moya Pons, La Espanola en el siglo XVI, 1493-1520 (Santiago, Dominican Republic, 1978), pp. 256-68; Sauer, The Spanish Main, pp. 209-12; Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery. From the Baroque to the Modern, 1492-1800 (London, 1997), p. 137.
27. Ward Barrett, The Sugar Hacienda of the Marqueses del Valle (Minneapolis, 1970).
28. Wood, New England's Prospect, p. 68, and see above, p. 37.
29. Stephen Innes, Labor in a New Land. Economy and Society in Seventeenth-Century Springfield (Princeton, 1983).
30. See Richard J. Salvucci, Textiles and Capitalism in Mexico. An Economic History of the Obrajes, 1539-1840 (Princeton, 1987).
31. P. J. Bakewell, Silver Mining and Society in Colonial Mexico, Zacatecas 1546-1700 (Cambridge, 1971).
32. Peter Bakewell, A History of Latin America (Oxford, 1997), p. 180; and see Richard L. Garner, `Long-Term Silver Mining Trends in Spanish America. A Comparative Analysis of Peru and Mexico', AHR, 93 (1988), pp. 898-935.
33. See above, pp. 40 and 421 n. 70.
34. Bakewell, Silver Mining, pp. 181-2.
35. Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain. Indian Labor in Potosi 1545-1650 (Albuquerque, NM, 1984), p. 18.
36. G. Lohmann Villena, Las minas de Huancavelica en los siglos XVI y XVII (Seville, 1949); Bakewell, Silver Mining, ch. 7.
37. Peter Bakewell, Silver and Entrepreneurship in Seventeenth-Century Potosi. The Life and Times of Antonio Lopez de Quiroga (Albuquerque, NM, 1988), p. 23.
38. Gwendolin B. Cobb, `Supply and Transportation for the Potosi Mines, 1545-1640', HAHR, 29 (1949), pp. 25-45. Zacarias Moutoukias, Contrabando y control colonial en el siglo XVIL Buenos Aires, el Atlantico y el espacio peruano (Buenos Aires, 1988), provides a detailed and valuable account of how the system worked.
39. Wilbur T. Meek, The Exchange Media of Colonial Mexico (New York, 1948), pp. 42 and 69-79; John Porteous, Coins in History (London, 1969), p. 170.
40. Bakewell, History of Latin America, p. 203.
41. Lockhart, The Nahuas After the Conquest, pp. 177-80.
42. Matienzo, Gobierno del Peru, p. 20.
43. Darrett B. and Anita H. Rutman, A Place in Time. Middlesex County, Virginia 1650-1750 (New York and London, 1984), p. 42.
44. Richard L. Bushman, King and People in Provincial Massachusetts (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1965), pp. 143-4.
45. John J. McCusker and Russell R. Menard, The Economy of British America, 1607-1789 (Chapel Hill, NC and London, 1985), p. 339.
46. Richard B. Sheridan, `The Domestic Economy', in Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole (eds), Colonial British America. Essays in the New History of the Early Modern Era (Baltimore and London, 1984), pp. 72-3; John J. McCusker, Money and Exchange in Europe and America, 1600-1771. A Handbook (London, 1978), ch. 3; and for late seventeenth-century New England, Bernard Bailyn, The New England Merchants in the Seventeenth Century (1955; New York, 1964), pp. 182-9.
47. Meek, Exchange Media, p. 57.
48. Daviken Studnicki-Gizbert, `From Agents to Consulado: Commercial Networks in Colonial Mexico, 1520-1590 and Beyond', Anuario de Estudios Americanos, 57 (2000), pp. 41-68; Bakewell, History of Latin America, pp. 203-4.
49. Cespedes del Castillo, America hispanica, p. 128; Garner, `Long-Term Silver Mining Trends', p. 902.
50. For a succinct survey, summarizing much recent work, see Ward Barrett, `World Bullion Flows, 1450-1800', in James D. Tracy (ed.), The Rise of Merchant Empires. Long-Distance
Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350-1750 (Cambridge, 1990), ch. 7.
51. Chaunu, L'Amerique et les Ameriques, p. 92; John R. Fisher, The Economic Aspects of Spanish Imperialism in America, 1492-1810 (Liverpool, 1997), p. 38.
52. Robert J. Ferry, The Colonial Elite of Early Caracas. Formation and Crisis, 1567-1767 (Berkeley Los Angeles, London, 1989), chs 1 and 2.
53. Gloria L. Main, Tobacco Colony. Life in Early Maryland 1650-1720 (Princeton, 1982), pp. 18-19.
54. Richard S. Dunn, Sugar and Slaves. The Rise of the Planter Class in the English West Indies, 1624-1713 (New York, 1972), p. 49; Andrews, The Colonial Period, vol. 2, ch. 7.
55. Watts, The West Indies, pp. 182-3; Dunn, Sugar and Slaves, pp. 59-67.
56. Watts, The West Indies, p. 230; Blackburn, Making of New World Slavery, p. 267.
57. Main, Tobacco Colony, pp. 239 and 254.
58. Cited from Bartolome de Las Casas by Hugh Thomas, Rivers of Gold, pp. 157-8. For a summary of the development of the crown's policy on Indian enslavement, see Konetzke, La epoca colonial, pp. 153-9. For a close study of policy and practice on Hispaniola, Carlos Esteban Deive, La Espanola en la esclavitud del indio (Santo Domingo, 1995).
59. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, doc. 10.
60. For the requerimiento see above, p. 11.
61. Hanke, The Spanish Struggle for Justice, pp. 33-5.
62. O. Nigel Bolland, `Colonization and Slavery in Central America', in Paul E. Lovejoy and Nicholas Rogers (eds), Unfree Labour in the Development of the Atlantic World (Ilford, 1994), pp. 11-25.
63. Konetzke, Coleccion de documentos, 1, does 143 and 144.
64. Gutierrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away, pp. 150-1; and see below, p. 275.
65. Juan A. and Judith E. Villamarin, Indian Labor in Mainland Colonial Spanish America (Newark, DE, 1975), pp. 16-18.
66. The Conde de Nieva (1563), quoted in Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, p. 56, n. 51.
67. For the mingas see Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, especially ch. 4.
68. The literature on black slavery in the Americas is now enormous. Frank Tannenbaum's Slave and Citizen (1946) retains its importance as a pioneering comparative study of slavery in British and Spanish America. A comparative approach is also adopted by Herbert S. Klein, Slavery in the Americas. A Comparative Study of Virginia and Cuba (Chicago, 1967). Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade. The History of the Atlantic Slave Trade 1440-1870 (New York and London, 1997) is a comprehensive synthesis, which pays due attention to the Iberian contribution, for which see also Enriqueta Vila Vilar, Hispano-America y el comercio de esclavos (Seville, 1977). For Mexico, see Colin A. Palmer, Slaves of the White God. Blacks in Mexico, 1570-1650 (Cambridge, MA and London, 1976), Herman L. Bennett, Africans in Colonial Mexico. Absolutism, Christianity, and Afro-Creole Consciousness, 1570-1640 (Bloomington, IN and Indianapolis, 2003). For Peru, Lockhart, Spanish Peru, ch. 10; Federick P. Bowser, The African Slave in Colonial Peru, 1524-1650 (Stanford, CA, 1974). For British America, most recently, Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone. The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge, MA, 1998). Valuable general studies covering the Atlantic world as a whole include, in addition to Robin Blackburn, The Making of New World Slavery (previously cited), Barbara L. Solow (ed.), Slavery and the Rise of the Atlantic System (Cambridge, 1991), and David Eltis, The Rise of African Slavery in the Americas (Cambridge, 2000).
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