20. See the arguments advanced by Anthony McFarlane, `Identity Enlightenment and Political Dissent in Late Colonial Spanish America', TRHS, 6th set., 8 (1998), pp. 309-35, especially pp. 323ff.
21. Anna, Loss o f America, p. 29.
22. Anna, Fall of Royal Government, ch. 2.
23. Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, pp. 304-6; Knight, Colonial Era, pp. 292-6.
24. Cited in Simon Collier, Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence, 1808-1833 (Cambridge, 1967), p. 52. William Burke, the author of An Account of the European Settlements in America (1757), died in 1797, and cannot therefore be the William Burke who made this observation. There has been much speculation about his identity. See Mario Rodriguez, `William Burke' and Francisco de Miranda. The Word and the Deed in Spanish America's Emancipation (Lanham, MD, New York and London, 1994), especially ch. 4, where `Burke' is identified with James Mill.
25. Decree of 22 January 1809, in Manuel Chust, La cuestion national americana en las Cortes de Cadiz (Valencia, 1999), pp. 32-3, n. 5.
26. Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, pp. 59-64.
27. Chust, La cuestion national, p. 46.
28. Cited in Draper, Struggle for Power, p. 397.
29. See above, p. 318.
30. Quoted from a comment in El Observador, two weeks before the opening of the Cortes, by Demetrio Ramos, `Las Cortes de Cadiz y America', Revista de Estudios Politicos, 126 (1962), pp. 433-634, at p. 488.
31. James E King, `The Colored Castes and the American Representation in the Cortes of Cadiz', HAHR, 33 (1953), pp. 33-64.
32. Chust, La cuestion national, pp. 39 and 55-62.
33. Miguel Izard, El miedo a la revolution. La lucha por la libertad en Venezuela, 1777-1830 (Madrid, 1979), p. 30; Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, pp. 109-11.
34. Guillermo Cespedes del Castillo, Lima y Buenos Aires. Repercusiones economicas y politicas de la creation del virreinato del Plata (Seville, 1947), pp. 122-9.
35. Tulio Halperin Donghi, Politics and Society in Argentina in the Revolutionary Period (Cambridge, 1975), pp. 29-40. For the effects of the creation of the new viceroyalty and the economic and social impact of the Bourbon reforms on the region, see also Jeremy Adelman, Republic of Capital. Buenos Aires and the Legal Transformation of the Atlantic World (Stanford, CA, 1999), ch. 2.
36. Adelman, Republic of Capital, p. 77; Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, ch. 2.
37. Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, pp. 52-8 and 135.
38. Collier, Ideas and Politics, p. 69.
39. Izard, El miedo, pp. 139-43; Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, ch. 6.
40. Knight, Colonial Era, pp. 298-304; Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, pp. 306-13; Eric Van Young, `Islands in the Storm: Quiet Cities and Violent Countrysides in the Mexican Independence Era', Past and Present, 118 (1988), pp. 130-55 (also in Spanish in Eric Van Young, La crisis del orden colonial (Madrid, 1992), ch. 8); Archer, The Army in Bourbon Mexico, p. 299.
41. Izard, El miedo, p. 30.
42. Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, pp. 58-60, 89-93; Adelman, Republic of Capital, pp. 85-7.
43. See above, p. 352.
44. Izard, El miedo, pp. 133-4.
45. Nelson, The American Tory, pp. 86-8.
46. Izard, El miedo, pp. 55 and 129.
47. Marchena Fernandez, Ejercito y militias, pp. 162 and 182.
48. John Lynch, `Spain's Imperial Memory', Debate y Perspectivas, 2 (2002), pp. 47-73, at p. 72.
49. Anna, Fall of Royal Government, p. 184.
50. Cited in Raymond Carr, Spain, 1808-1939 (Oxford, 1966), p. 104, n. 1.
51. See Anna, Loss of America, pp. 80-3, for the free trade question in the Cortes.
52. Chust, La cuestion national, p. 54; Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, p. 84.
53. Cespedes del Castillo, Ensayos, pp. 375-83.
54. Josep M. Fradera, Gobernar colonias (Barcelona, 1999), pp. 54-5.
55. Chust, La cuestion nacional, p. 71.
56. For the position of the castas pardas, see Fradera, Gobernar colonias, pp. 57-67.
57. Nettie Lee Benson (ed.), Mexico and the Spanish Cortes, 1810-1822 (Austin, TX and London, 1966), p. 31.
58. King, `The Colored Castes'; Anna, Loss of America, pp. 68-79; Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, p. 86.
59. Thomas, Slave Trade, pp. 498-502. For a recent treatment of the slavery question in the age of revolution, see Ellis, Founding Brothers, ch. 3.
60. Chust, La cuestion national, pp. 102-14; Thomas, Slave Trade, pp. 578-81; Rossiter, 1787, pp. 215-18.
61. Wilcomb E. Washburn, Red Man's Land/White Man's Law. A Study of the Past and Present Status of the American Indian (New York, 1971), p. 164. From the early nineteenth century the United States began conferring citizenship on some Indians, particularly those who had been allocated parcels of tribal land, and the process was accelerated following the Dawes Act of 1887. Two-thirds of the Indian population of the United States had full citizenship by the time when the Citizenship Act of 1924 extended it to all. Even after 1924, however, Indians were denied the franchise in some states.
62. Borah, Justice by Insurance, pp. 396-401, 412.
63. Anna, Loss of America, pp. 94-5.
64. Collier, Ideas and Politics, p. 105.
65. Anna, Fall of Royal Government, pp. 54-5.
66. Jaime E. Rodriguez 0., `Las elecciones a las tortes constituyentes mexicanas', in Louis Cardaillac and Angelica Peregrina (eds), Ensayos en homenaje a lose Maria Muria (Zapopan, 2002), pp. 79-109. The text of the constitution of 1812, with a helpful introduction, has been made conveniently available in Antonio Fernandez Garcia (ed.), La constitution de Cadiz (1812) y discurso preliminar a la constitution (Madrid, 2002).
67. Figure cited in Jaime E. Rodriguez 0., `La naturaleza de la representation en Nueva Espana y Mexico', Secuencia, 61 (2005), pp. 7-32, at p. 25.
68. King, `Colored Castes', p. 64.
69. Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, p. 98.
70. Chust, La cuestion national, ch. 5; Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, pp. 94-103.
71. Gibson, Aztecs Under Spanish Rule, pp. 175-9.
72. Rodriguez 0., `La naturaleza de la representation', pp. 16-17.
73. For the later eighteenth-century extension of schooling, and attempts at linguistic unification, see Serge Gruzinski, `La "segunda aculturacion": el estado ilustrado y la religiosidad indigena en Nueva Espana', Estudios de historic novohispana, 8 (1985), pp. 175-201.
74. Guerra, Modernidad e independencias, pp. 278-81; Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, pp. 93-4; Clarice Neal, `Freedom of the Press in New Spain', in Benson (ed.), Mexico and the Spanish Cortes, ch. 4.
75. Chust, La cuestion national, p. 308.
76. Rodriguez 0., Independence of Spanish America, p. 103.
77. Van Young, La crisis, pp. 419-20.
78. Anna, Loss of America, pp. 135-8.
79. Ibid., pp. 143-7; and, for Ferdinand's American policy, see Michael P. Costeloe, Response to Revolution. Imperial Spain and the Spanish American Revolutions, 1810-1840 (Cambridge, 1986), especially pp. 59-100.
80. Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, chs 2 and 3.
81. Anna, Fall of Royal Government, chs 6 and 7.
82. Robert Harvey, Liberators. Latin America's Struggle for Independence, 1810-1830 (London, 2000), provides a graphic account of the various military campaigns that won independence for Spain's empire in America.
83. For the financial and political collapse of the Spanish monarchy in these years, see especially Josep Fontana, La quiebra de la monarqula absoluta, 1814-1820 (Barcelona, 1971).
84. Benson (ed.), Mexico and the Spanish Cortes, ch. 6; Knight, Colonial Era, pp. 329-30.
85. Anna, Loss of America, pp. 255-6.
86. Bakewell, History of Latin America, p. 380; Thomas, Cuba, chs 5 and 6.
87. George Canning to Viscount Granville, 19 August 1825, in C. K. Webster,
Britain and the Independence of Latin America, 1812-1830 (2 vols, London, New York, Toronto, 1938), 2, doc. 416, p. 193.
88. Cited in Shy A People Numerous, p. 331, n. 21.
89. Ibid., p. 250.
90. Lynch, Spanish American Revolutions, pp. 199-204; Shy, A People Numerous, ch. 8 ('Armed Loyalism'); Shy, 'Armed Force', in Hagan and Roberts (eds), Against All Enemies, p. 13.
91. Anna, Fall of Royal Government, pp. 16-17.
92. Lester D. Langley, The Americas in the Age of Revolution, 1750-1850 (New Haven and London, 1996), p. 185; Anna, Fall of Royal Government, p. 196.
93. `Speech on the Independence of Latin America, 28 March 1818', in The Papers of Henry Clay, ed. James F. Hopkins (11 vols, Lexington, KY11959-92), 2, p. 551.
94. Richter, Facing East, pp. 217-21 for Indians; Shy, A People Numerous, pp. 130-1 and 205 for slaves.
95. Anna, Fall of Royal Government, ch. 5.
96. See Shy, A People Numerous, ch. 11 ('The Legacy of the Revolutionary War'); McCusker and Menard, Economy of British America, p. 367, for levels of income and wealth.
97. The expression is that of Van Young, `Islands in the Storm'.
98. See the Introduction to Webster, Britain and the Independence of Latin America, vol. 1. For the ideological background to British policy towards Spanish America in this period, see Gabriel Paquette, `The Intellectual Context of British Diplomatic Recognition of the South American Republics, c. 1800-1830', Journal of Transatlantic Studies, 2 (2004), pp. 75-95.
99. See Bernstein, Origins of Inter-American Interest, pp. 83-7; and, for the debate over the creation of a hemispheric system, Arthur P. Whitaker, The Western Hemisphere Idea. Its Rise and Decline (Ithaca, NY, 1954), ch. 2.
100. Above, p. 300; John Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800-1850 (Oxford, 1992), pp. 30-4.
101. Gerhard Masur, Simon Bolivar (2nd edn, Albuquerque, NM, 1969), ch. 2; for Belgrano, Lynch (ed.), Latin American Revolutions, p. 258.
102. Manuel Belgrano, Autobiografia y otras paginas (Buenos Aires, 1966), p. 24. The translation is taken from Lynch, Latin American Revolutions, p. 259.
103. Masur, Bolivar, p. 329.
104. McCullough, John Adams, p. 593.
105. The sixth, John Witherspoon, born in Scotland in 1723, moved to America in 1768 to become president of the College of New Jersey at Princeton.
106. Information on the Signers is taken from the Dictionary of American Biography. For Carroll's European upbringing, see Hoffman, Princes of Ireland, ch. 4.
107. Rossiter, 1787, p. 140.
108. For Bolivar's political vision, see Anthony Pagden, Spanish Imperialism and the Political Imagination (New Haven and London, 1990), ch. 6.
109. Cited by David Brading in David A. Brading et al., Cinco miradas britanicas a la historia de Mexico (Mexico City, 2000), p. 102.
110. For the problems of nation-building in Hispanic America, see Lynch, Caudillos, ch. 4.
111. See Benson, Mexico and the Spanish Cortes, ch. 1 (Charles R. Berry, `The Election of the Mexican Deputies to-the-Spanish Cortes, 1810-1820').
112. See Collier, Ideas and Politics of Chilean Independence.
113. Robert W. Tucker and David C. Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty. The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson (Oxford, 1992), pp. 26-7 and 64-5.
114. Cambridge Economic History of the United States, 1, ch. 9; Tucker and Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty, p. 190.
115. Leandro Prados de la Escosura and Samuel Amaral (eds), La independencia americana: consecuencias economicas (Madrid, 1993), p. 264.
116. See David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821-1846 (Albuquerque, NM, 1982).
117. John H. Coatsworth, `Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico', AHR, 83 (1978), pp. 80-100. The Spanish version of this important article is printed in ch. 4 of John H. Coatsworth, Los origenes del atraso. Nueve ensayos de historia economica de Mexico en los siglos XVIII y XIX (Mexico City, 1990), with a short addendum responding to a critique by Enrique Cardenas.
118. Cambridge Economic History of the United States, 1, p. 396.
119. See Joyce Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution. The First Generation of Americans (Cambridge, MA, 2000), for the attitudes and achievements of this generation.
120. Ibid., p. 52; Steven Watts, The Republic Reborn. War and the Making of Liberal America, 1790-1820( Baltimore and London, 1987), pp. 283-9.
121. Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution, p. 28.
122. Ibid., pp. 69-71.
123. See Wyatt Brown, Southern Honor; also Appleby, Inheriting the Revolution, ch. 8.
Epilogue
1. Dennis D. Moore (ed.), More Letters from the American Farmer. An Edition of the Essays in English Left Unpublished by Crevecoeur (Athens, GA and London, 1995), pp. 82-9. I have modernized the punctuation and spelling.
2. For a set of valuable discussions of the colonial legacy of Iberian America, see the essays in Jeremy Adelman (ed.), Colonial Legacies. The Problem of Persistence in Latin American History (New York and London, 1999).
3. The Black Legend was first systematically examined by Julian Juderias in La Leyenda Negra (Madrid, 1914, and frequently reprinted), and has been the subject of numerous subsequent studies, among them Sverker Arnoldsson, La Leyend Negra. Estudios sobre sus origenes (Goteborg, 1960); William S. Maltby, The Black Legend in England. The Development of Anti-Spanish Sentiment, 1558-1660 (Durham, NC, 1971); Ricardo Garcia Carcel, La Leyenda Negra. Historia y opinion (Madrid, 1992); J. N. Hillgarth, The Mirror of Spain, 1500-1700. The Formation of a Myth (Ann Arbor, MI, 2000). Charles Gibson, The Black Legend. Anti-Spanish Attitudes in the Old World and the New (New York, 1971), is an anthology of relevant contemporary and later extracts.
4. See Adelman (ed.), Colonial Legacies, p. 5.
5. Thomas Pownall, A Translation of the Memorial of the Sovereigns of Europe Upon the Present State of Affairs Between the Old and New World (London, 1781), p. 11. For the evolution of Pownall's ideas, see Shy, A People Numerous, ch. 3.
6. Smith, Wealth of Nations, 2, p. 486 (book S, ch. 3).
7. See Stanley L. Engerman, `British Imperialism in a Mercantilist Age, 1492-1849: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Problems', Revista de Historia Economica, 16 (1998), pp. 195-231, and especially pp. 218-19. This special issue of the journal, containing papers delivered at the Twelfth International Economic History Congress, and edited by Patrick K. O'Brien and Leandro Prados de la Escosura under the title of The Costs and Benefits of European Imperialism from the Conquest of Ceuta, 1415, to the Treaty of Lusaka, 1974, acknowledges and illustrates the many problems involved in attempts at drawing up a cost-benefit analysis of empire, but provides a valuable comparative survey using case studies based on the current state of knowledge.
8. See John TePaske, `The Fiscal Structure of Upper Peru and the Financing of Empire', in Karen Spalding (ed.), Essays in the Political, Economic and Social History of Colonial Latin America (Newark, DE, 1982), pp. 69-94.
9. See Bartolome Yun-Casalilla, `The American Empire and the Spanish Economy: an Institutional and Regional Perspective', Revista de Historia Economica, 16 (1996), pp. 123-56.
10. Marichal, La bancarrota, pp. 22-3.
11. A purely monetary explanation of sixteenth-century Castilian inflation is no longer acceptable. Other considerations, and in particular population growth, need to be taken into account. For a lucid survey of the current state of debate over the monetary and other consequences of Spain's acquisition of an American empire, see Bartolome Yun- Casalilla, Marte contra Minerva. El precio del imperio espanol, c. 1450-1600 (Barcelona, 2004), ch. 3.
12. James Campbell, A Concise History of the Spanish America (London, 1741; facsimile edn, Folkestone and London, 1972), p. 291.
13. See Patrick Karl O'Brien and Leandro Prados de la Escosura, `The Costs and Benefits for Europeans from their Empires Overseas', Revista de Historia Economica, 16 (1998), pp. 29-89. Also Renate Pieper, `The Volume of African and American Exports of Precious Metals and its Effects in Europe,
1500-1800', in Hans Pohl (ed.), The European Discovery of the World and its Economic Effects on Pre-Industrial Society (Papers of the Tenth International Economic History Congress, Vierteljahrschrift fur Sozial-Und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, Beihefte, No. 89, Stuttgart, 1990), pp. 97-117.
14. Above, p. 131.
15. I have attempted a brief counterfactual history along these lines in Armitage and Braddick (eds), The British Atlantic World, pp. 241-3.
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