fermions 65, 90
quarks as 96–7
and supersymmetry 181–2
Feynman, Richard 41, 64, 104, 121
and quantum electrodynamics 14, 44, 45
parton model 124–5
field particles/force carriers 45
acquisition of mass 85–9 see also B particles; photons; gluons; W particles; Z particles
fields 28, 28n, 38–9
Fifteenth International Symposium on Lepton-Photon Interactions at High Energies, Mumbai, 2011 205, 208
Finnegan’s Wake (Joyce) 80
five-sigma evidence 193–4, 204, 216-8
flavour 111, 177, 220
Fletcher, Harvey 79
Fock, Vladimir 33
form and substance 1–15
Franklin, Benjamin 46
Friedman, Jerome 122, 124
Frisch, Otto 40
Fritzsch, Harald 108–10
and quantum chromodynamics 137
and quark colours 110–12, 110n
Gargantua 129n
gauge theory 30–1, 33–5
connection with wave mechanics 31–3
Gell-Mann, Murray 62–3, 64, 109–10
Eightfold Way 68–70
initial particle pattern construction 65–8
Nobel Prize 107–8, 108n
omega particle prediction 71–2
and ‘put-ons’ 124n
and quantum chromodynamics 137
and quark colours 110–12, 110n
quark model 78–84, 97
and strangeness 58–9
general covariance 29, 30
general theory of relativity 20, 29, 103–4
Georgi, Howard 155, 182
grand unified theory 155–6, 157
Gianotti, Fabiola 187, 194, 210, 216
Gillies, James 201, 207
Gipp, George 161–2
Glaser, Donald 128
Glashow, Sheldon 61–2, 68, 106, 140
electro-weak quantum field theory xvi, 62–3, 67, 91, 98–102, 153
grand unified theory (GUT) 155–6, 157, 181
Nobel Prize 143–4
Glashow-Iliopoulos-Maiani (GIM) mechanism 100–1, 126, 134
gluon ‘jets’ 142–3
gluons 111, 112, 142, 221
colour charge 137
fusion 197
masslessness 137n
and nucleon mass 139–40, 221
‘string’ model 138
God particle see Higgs boson
Goldberg, Haim 83
Goldstone, Jeffrey xv, xvi, 77 see also Nambu-Goldstone bosons
Goldstone theorem 77–8, 84, 91, 92
Göttingen University 22–3, 29, 36
grand unification epoch 155–6
supercooling transition to electro-weak epoch 156–7
grand unified theories (GUTs) 155–7, 160
gravitational mass 4
gravity 4, 13, 135
and general relativity 19–20, 29
Newton’s law 19
and Theories of Everything xi–xii, 155n
unification with electromagnetism 30
Greeks, Ancient 1–2, 3, 4, 11, 20, 27
Greenberg, Oscar 97
Gross, David xx, 136–7
Guralnik, Gerald xv, 85, 158, 207, 214
Guth, Alan 156–7
hadron sprays 122, 128–9, 142–3
hadronic calorimeters 187, 188
hadrons 64–5
‘charmed’ 102
incorporation into electro-weak theory 94, 101
quark composition 96, 125
Weinberg’s wariness 93
Haganah 70
Hagen, Carl xv, 85, 158, 207, 214
Hahn, Otto 40
Han, Moo-Young 97
Han-Nambu model of integral-charged quarks 97, 110
Harvard University 61, 91, 92, 130, 131, 132, 149
Hawking, Stephen 166
Heisenberg, Werner 39, 51, 109, 137n
electron-exchange model 47–9
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle 36, 139
helium 9
Heuer, Rolf 195, 201, 202, 211, 215, 218
‘hierarchy problem’ xviii, 180–1
Higgs, Peter xv, 85, 89–90, 90–1, 94, 158, 206–7, 208, 211, 219
Higgs boson xvii, 90, 94, 95, 106, 153
blogosphere discovery rumours 192–3, 196–9, 206, 213
decay channels 178, 197, 203–4
discovery xi, 215-9
explaining to politicians 173
as ‘God particle’ xii
importance xii, 170–1, 221
LEP search 178–80, 196
LHC search 191–2, 193, 194–5, 196–219
Luminosity, and production 200, 212
mass estimation 177–8, 180
mass problem xviii, 180–1
mass problem resolved by supersymmetry 182
mass/energy range narrowed 202–4, 205, 208, 210, 211, 216-8
possibility of non-discovery xii–xiii, 209–10
public interest in xiv
US controversy over search 159–68
Higgs field(s) 86, 94, 105, 153
and acquisition of mass xii, 88–9, 172–3, 221
crystallization in electro-weak epoch 154
crystallization in grand unification epoch 155
explaining to politicians 172–3
importance xii, 158–9, 170–1
invention xiii, 158
potential energy curve 86–8
theoretical tinkering 156, 157, 158
Higgs mechanism 85–90, 91, 105
application to electro-weak field theory xv, 93–5, 98, 101, 107, 126, 153
explaining to politicians 171–6
Nobel Prize debate 207
Hilbert, David 22, 29, 36
Hiroshima 12, 119
Hitler, Adolf 36
Hole in Texas, A (Wouk) 166–7
hydrogen 9
hydrogen atoms 4, 10, 42
Lamb shift 41
Iliopoulos, John 98, 100–2
‘imaginary’ numbers 32, 32n
Imperial College, London 71, 85
Incandela, Joseph 215
‘inelastic’ scattering 121–2
inertial mass 3, 4, 12, 88–9
inflationary cosmology 157–8
inflaton field 158
Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton 36, 46, 51, 64, 73, 91
integrated luminosity 194
International Space Station, Texas 166
isospin 48, 49
conservation 46, 49, 50, 81
and Eightfold Way classification 69
and quark composition 81, 81n
‘shift’ 58–9
total 49
isotopes 10, 48
radioactive 13
J/ψ mesons:
discovery 141
Jentschke, Willibald 133
Jews, exclusion from Civil Service 36
Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Soviet Union 120
Jona-Lasinio, Giovanni 76–7, 92
kaons 65
alternative (charm-quark) decay mode 100–1, 126
decay into muons 98–100
discovery 58, 117
quark composition 110–11
strange behaviour 58–9
Kasper, Raphael 166
Kendall, Henry 122, 124
Kepler, Johannes 19
Kibble, Tom xv, 85, 94, 158, 207, 214
Klein, Felix 22
Konstantinidis, Nikos 178
Kramers, Hendrik 41, 42
Lagarrigue, Andre 129, 132
Lamb, Willis 41
Nobel Prize 57
Lamb shift 41, 42, 43
lambda particles 64
discovery 58
Eightfold Way 68–9
‘fundamental triplet’ proposal 65–7, 68, 69
strange behaviour 58–9
lambda-CDM model 105n, 183
laser light 74n
Law for the
Reestablishment of the Career Civil Service (1933) 36
Lawrence, Ernest 118
Nobel Prize 118
Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, California 92
laws of nature 19–21
Lederman, Leon 142, 150, 150n, 152, 193
appeal to Reagan 160
and Fermilab 150, 150n
The God Particle 165
and the SSC 160, 166
leptons 64, 65, 99, 141, 178
electro-weak unified theory of 93–4, 98, 101
Higgs boson decay channels 178, 203
Leucippus 2
Leutwyler, Heinrich 137
Lie, Sophus 30
Lie groups 30, 33, 68
linear accelerators 118
linear momentum conservation 20–1, 30
invariant to continuous symmetry translations in space 26
lithium 9
local gauge symmetry 33, 49
London, Fritz 33
London, Jack 161
loop corrections 180, 182
Los Alamos 41
Low, Francis 101
luminosity 147, 193–4
CERN LHC 200, 205, 209, 213
magnetic monopoles 156–7
Maiani, Luciano 98, 100–2, 179–80, 185
Major, John 169
Manhattan project 119, 194
Mann, Alfred 130, 131–2, 133
mass 3–4
acquisition via Higgs field xii, 88–9, 172–3, 221
and energy 3, 12, 139–40, 221
gravitational 4
inertial 3, 4, 12, 88–9
and molecular weight 10–11, 220
as resistance to acceleration 88–9, 221
and symmetry breaking (Nambu–Jona-Lasinio model) 76–7
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) 64
matter
conservation (Greek belief) 20
and energy 12, 20
Max Planck Institute 109
Maxwell’s equations 27–8, 30, 38
Meitner, Lise 40
Mendeleev, Dmitri 65
mesons 58n, 65, 112, 138, 142
‘charmed’ 102
Eightfold Way octet 69–70, 78
quark composition 80, 110–11
‘Mexican’ waves 32n
Miller, David 171–6
Millikan, Robert 79
Mills, Robert 49–51, 53, 54, 60, 152
Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model (MSSM) 181–5, 219
MIT 92, 101
MIT-SLAC group 122, 123, 124
molecular weight 10–11, 220
molecules 4
moles 10–11
momentum, conservation of 20–1, 26, 30
muon anti-neutrinos 99, 100, 132, 176
muon-neutrino–nucleon collisions 126–7
and muonless events 127, 128–9, 130–4
muon neutrinos 142
discovery 99
faster-than-light 209, 212
and kaon decay modes 99–100
muons 65, 98–9, 99–100, 142, 176, 178
discovery 56–7, 117
name changed from mesons 57–8
muon pairs 152
muon spectrometers 187, 188
muonless events 127, 128–9, 130–4
Musset, Paul 129, 131
Nakano, Tadao 59n
Nambu, Yoichiro xv, 73–8, 90, 92, 97–8 see also Han-Nambu model of integral-charged quarks
Nambu-Goldstone bosons xv, xix, 77, 84–5, 88, 92, 93
National Academies of Science and Engineering, US 163
National Accelerator Laboratory (NAL), Chicago:
opening 111
search for weak neutral currents 130–4 see also Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory (Fermilab)
Nazi Germany 36, 40
Ne’eman, Yuval 70–2, 78, 83
Neddermeyer, Seth 56
neutralinos 183, 183n
neutrinos 65, 93, 125, 151, 187
discovery 13
division from quarks and electrons 155
Higgs boson decay channels 178, 179, 203
neutron bombardment 12, 40
uranium atoms 40
neutrons 9, 12, 15, 64, 220
acquisition of mass through symmetry breaking 77, 92
collision with muon-neutrinos 126–7
conversion into protons in beta-decay 13, 47, 60, 81
discovery 9, 40, 47
and Eightfold Way 68–9, 78
electron-exchange model 47–9
‘fundamental triplet’ proposal 65–7, 68, 69
inherent instability 55
and isotopes 10
mass 10, 46–7, 47n, 139–40
and molecular weight 10, 220
quark composition 80, 81, 110, 221 see also strong nuclear force
New Scientist 199, 201
Newton, Isaac 19
Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen 92, 122–3
Nishijima, Kazuhiko 59n
Nishina, Yoshio 73
Noether, Amalie Emmy xxi, 21–3, 36–7
Noether’s theorem 23, 24–7, 28, 30, 46
Noether, Max 22
Not Even Wrong (Woit) 196
‘November revolution’ 141
nuclear fission 12, 40
nuclear reactions, first artificial 118
nuclear weapons see atom bomb
Oak Ridge 119, 119n
‘Oh-My-God particle’ 117n
‘oil drop’ experiment 79
omega particles, discovery 72
‘one loop contribution’ 99–100
OPERA experiment 209, 209n, 212
Oppenheimer, J. Robert 41, 44, 51, 52
oxygen atoms 4, 10
Pagels, Heinz 137
Pais, Abraham 41
parafermions 97
particle accelerators 118–21
particle colliders xii, 144–6
particle detectors 127–8
particle physics 64, 71, 73, 95, 185 see also Standard Model
particles
grand unified theory predictions 156
last few discovered 176–7
new ‘zoo’ 55–8
pattern discovered 65–72
taxonomy 64–5 see also Eightfold Way; individual particles; super-particles
parton model 124–5
Paschos, Emmanuel 124, 125
Pauli, Wolfgang 13, 39, 51–2, 91, 153
Pauli’s exclusion principle 7–8, 9–10, 65, 74, 96, 97, 111
periodic table 9, 10, 65
Perkins, Donald 129, 133–4
Perot, Ross 166
perturbation expansion and correction 39–40, 42–3, 44, 51
phase angle transformations 33
phase symmetry 33, 45, 50
phase waves 32
phi mesons, 192
phonons 173
photinos 182
photons 220
as electromagnetic force carriers 14–15, 39, 65, 142, 220
Higgs boson decay channels 178, 197
as hypothetical weak force carriers 60, 62
independence of Higgs field/masslessness 88, 94, 126, 154, 171, 172
LHC electromagnetic calorimeters 187, 188
polarization 85–6
Physical Review 83
Physical Review Letters 90, 133, 134, 137
Physics Letters 89, 132
Pikes Peak, Colorado 56
pions 65
creation in inelastic scattering 121
decay rate of neutral 110, 111
discovery 57–8, 117
misidentified as muons 134
Nambu-Goldstone bosons approximated as 77, 92
produced by kaon decay 100
quark composition 110–11
Planck mass xviii
Plato 2, 2n
‘Platonic’ (geometrical) solids 2, 4
Pocono Mountains conference, 1948 43–4
Politzer, David xx, 137
Ponce, Laurette 200
position-momentum uncertainty
35–6
positrons
discovery 8–9, 56, 117
as signature of W+ particle decay 151
potential energy curve 86
Powell, Cecil 57
Princeton University 92, 110
proton accelerators 118
proton–anti-proton colliders 147–51, 159
proton–anti-proton collisions 176
proton-electron collisions 112
proton-proton colliders 145–6, 160, 168
proton-proton collisions xiii, 121, 140, 191, 197, 200, 208, 209, 212
‘forward’ region 186
proton synchrotrons 120
protons 9, 12, 15, 64, 220
acquisition of mass through symmetry breaking 77, 92
and characteristics of the elements 9
conversion from neutrons in beta-radioactivity 13, 47, 60, 81
and Eightfold Way 68–9, 78
electron-exchange model 46–9
as ‘fundamental triplet’ 65–7, 68, 69
high precision measurements 186
instability in Glashow-Georgi GUT 156, 157
mass 10, 46–7, 47n, 57, 57n, 139–40, 144n
and molecular weight 10, 220
and nuclear fission 12
parton model 124–5
point-like constituents 112, 123
quark composition 80, 81, 96, 110, 220–1 see also strong nuclear force
quantum chromodynamics (QCD) xxi, 137
quantum electrodynamics (QED) 41–3
relativistic 14–15, 38, 43–5, 50
renormalization procedure 42–3
quantum field theory 38–9, 123
and asymptotic freedom 136–7
Heisenberg-Pauli model 39–40 see also electro-weak quantum field theory; quantum chromodynamics; quantum electrodynamics; Yang-Mills field theories
quantum mechanics 5
relativistic 5–8, 38
quantum numbers 31
Quantum Story (Baggott) xiii
quark–anti-quark pairs 138, 139
bottom-quarks 142, 178
charm-quarks 141
quark ‘jets’ 142–3, 176, 178
quark model 78–84, 108
problems 96–8
quark-quark collisions 197
quarks xx, xxi, 141–2, 220–1
asymptotic freedom 135–7
colour charge 110–12, 110n, 137, 220–1
colour charge ‘masking’ 138–9
‘confinement’ 80, 111, 112–13, 125–6, 138, 138n
division from electrons and neutrinos 155
experimental evidence 112, 123, 125
flavour 111, 220
flavour-changing mechanism 177
Han-Nambu model of integral-charge 97, 110
mass 139, 139n, 221
and ‘parton’ model 125
proposed transformation into leptons 155–6
and strong nuclear force field theory 109–12 see also bottom quarks; charm quarks; down quarks; strange quarks; top quarks; up quarks
Quinn, Helen 155, 182
Rabi, Isidor 41, 57
radioactivity 13
Reagan, Ronald 160–2
relativity
Higgs:The invention and discovery of the 'God Particle' Page 22
