It is difficult to underestimate Rome’s contribution to the Bible. The military history of Rome set the stage for the major events of Christianity, including Jesus’s birth under Herod and his trial and crucifixion under Pilate. Rome also fundamentally altered Judaism and Christianity when it destroyed the Temple in Jerusalem. Paul’s letter to the church in Rome is the longest letter in the Bible and serves as the best summary of the gospel to a Gentile world, which Rome itself ironically helped spread through its early persecution of Christians as well as by its later adoption of Christianity. Furthermore, Rome played a key role in shaping the canon of the Bible, determining precisely which books would come to be known as the Word of God.
So our journey ends in Rome, as Rome is the city that is responsible for the canonization of both the Old and New Testaments for Christians. And this is fitting, as all roads truly lead to Rome.
Conclusion
As we’ve seen, building the Bible was a complicated, messy process. It did not float down from the sky as the complete inerrant, infallible, noncontradictory Word of God. It is the product of dozens of authors and hundreds of anonymous editors and redactors. The canonization process took many centuries, not a few years and a single vote, and multiple influential opinions contributed to the Bible we have today. Because of the length of time it took to compose the Bible and because of the many different contributors to the Bible from different time periods and different perspectives, the separate books of the Bible often make contradictory claims that cannot be reconciled, despite two thousand years of attempts by systematic theologians. And this is okay!
It is this process of wrestling with the aggregate books of the Bible that has given rise to many of the Jewish and Christian traditions we have today. For example, we would not have the Trinity without competing claims that there is only one God and that Jesus is also God. We would not have an apocalyptic Jewish messiah, if we did not have claims that Israel’s kings will forever come from the line of David despite the reality that the Babylonians ended the Davidic monarchy, causing Jews to look to the sky for a divine messiah.
Most important for our purposes, a number of different cities in and around the Holy Land played significant roles in the construction of the Bible. We have the pages of our Bible because of Byblos and an alphabetic text because of the cities of Phoenicia like Tyre and Ṣidon. The deities of the Ugaritic pantheon made their way south and came to be worshipped in Israel and Judah (against the Hebrew prophets’ many objections). Likewise, some of the stories we have in the Bible, like that of Job, bear uncanny resemblance to earlier stories from Ugarit.
Nineveh and the Assyrians brought destruction to the Northern Kingdom, Israel, and caused those in Judah to interpret Samaria’s demise as divine displeasure toward Israel for its rebellion against Judah and Jerusalem, the city of God. And the Babylonians fundamentally altered the history of what would become Judaism, destroying the Temple in Jerusalem and forcing its residents into exile. Out of the ashes of this existential crisis, what would become the Hebrew Bible began to be written down, collected, and edited for future generations.
Megiddo became the symbol of great battles in Israel, and we see how the control of a single geographic location can alter the fate of nations in all directions. The rise of Athens and the philosophy and literature of ancient Greece fundamentally influenced the Bible. The hellenization of the Jewish faith required new perspectives on the events of Israel’s past as well as a new Bible that could be read by Greek-speaking Jews.
Moving to Alexandria, we find the concentration of knowledge at the Library of Alexandria provided a motivation for the Septuagint and introduced us to a number of the books of the Bible that many Jews and Christians may not have been familiar with, but that were included in many of the early canonical lists. We also learned why the New Testament was written in Greek, as it became the common written language in first-century Roman Palestine.
Of course, the central city of the Jewish and Christian faiths is Jerusalem, and Jerusalem had a strong influence on the formation of the Bible. We learned that Jesus and other Jews in Jerusalem came to speak Aramaic because of the Persian endorsement of the Jewish return to Jerusalem and of the rebuilding of its Temple. And we saw how the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus in Jerusalem became the central point of early Christian literature.
The discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls at Qumran was arguably the most important archaeological discovery of the twentieth century. It changed the way we understand the earliest versions of the Bible, as the scrolls preserve traditions that are often slightly different from those we have in the Hebrew Bible and the Septuagint.
Bethleḥem became what it is today because the father of a shepherd boy (David) happened to live there and because all subsequent kings of Israel were expected to come from Bethleḥem. We also learned how Nazareth inspired stories about the birth of a Jewish messiah from the north, who was accepted by some and rejected by others.
Finally, the rise of the Roman Empire shaped and altered first-century Judaism and Christianity by being responsible for the crucifixion of Jesus and the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem. We also saw Rome’s role as both political and theological leader of the early church and how it contributed to determining which books would ultimately be considered the holy Word of God. We have a biblical canon because of the beliefs of a few influential translators (Eusebius, Athanasius, and Jerome, and even they disagreed) who were making Bibles for various Roman emperors and because of later Christian councils (like the Third Council of Carthage in 397) that finally issued a canon regarding which books would be considered canonical—and this canon included several of the Apocryphal books!
The Bible as we have it today is the product of three thousand years of believers in a Cana‘anite deity attempting to reconcile their socioeconomic, geographical, geological, political, and military realities with their personal ideologies, identities, and philosophies. The Bible is a product of those ancient individuals who dared to struggle with God and who survived to write down their reflections. In this regard, the Bible is not a rule book, a spiritual sword, or a telephone for speaking to God; rather, it is a record of the faithful attempting to make sense of what has happened to them. The Bible is a chronicle that has been augmented and edited, redacted, reshaped, and rewritten over the years for the purpose of presenting an account of the history of a people who believed God had broken into history and was guiding them through their time on earth.
We must also remember that the Bible is not holy of its own accord; rather, people ascribe holiness. The Bible is simply a book, but it is a book built by people for people. Any holiness attributed to the Bible comes from the fact that it is venerated by the faithful and not because its pages are holy on their own.
Thus, the Bible today is not a “living document”; rather, it is quite dead. The Bible is powerful only when it is translated, interpreted (in a manner that seeks to discover what the author of the text was trying to communicate and not what it happens to mean to you personally two thousand years later), considered and evaluated (not only to determine which claims are factual or historical, but to decide which ancient directives are morally defunct and ethically obsolete by our modern civil standards), and if you are a person of faith, lived. Without these actions—translating, interpreting, considering and evaluating, and enacting—the Bible is powerless. Thus, it is you, the reader, who gives the Bible its authority and its efficacy. Without the faithful, the Bible is just another ancient collection of documents.
Furthermore, it is how we choose to enact the claims and directives present in the Bible that will determine the Bible’s future worth. If the Bible is read with an insistence that its text is perfect, inerrant, and noncontradictory and that the ethical directives given over two thousand years ago are still irrefutable and unquestionable today, then each subsequent generation will continue to walk away from the Bible, discarding it (with disdain) as a product of a bygone era.
However, if the Bible is read and understood properly, not as a blueprint for modern society, but as a historical record of the struggles of people of faith who believed in a God who would rescue them from their present difficulties—a record that serves to inform and encourage people of faith today as they struggle through their daily lives—then the Bible will not only continue to live; it will become all the more relevant, as it not only shows us how far we’ve grown and developed as humans over the centuries, but also reminds us of the perpetual philosophical questions we will continue to face in our fast-approaching future. Why should I care about my fellow humans? What damage is done by greed, jealousy, hate, lust, and pride? How much of a difference can a cup of cold water really make? A visit to a sick friend? Clothing the naked? Feeding the hungry?
There will always be sectarian divisions among the faithful, who will continue to argue and fight and die over questions that can never be proved. The Bible should give us an appreciation for the history of humanity, not make us loathe those who read it. It should cause us to reflect on the decisions made by those recorded within its pages and inspire us not to make some of the same bad decisions. The Bible should be celebrated as a chronicle of our history, not used as a legal framework for our future. The Bible shows us how human beings adapted to the challenges around them in the past and should provide inspiration for us as we continue to face many of these same challenges.
It is my hope that this book has offered a responsible way in which to view the interaction of the biblical text and archaeological record. I intentionally cited a multitude of biblical passages in a deliberate attempt to show you exactly how much these cities have influenced the text of the Bible. As I said in the Introduction, I don’t expect every reader to agree with everything I’ve said—trust me, I’m used to it. I’m a scholar, and disagreement comes with the territory. But it has been my desire (and my distinct privilege) to present you with a narrative that walks you through some of history’s most important cities and shows you how they helped shape the Bible and the beliefs of those who revere it.
It is also my hope that this book has encouraged you to buy a ticket to visit the places that you’ve only ever read about in the Bible. I hope you get to visit the places I’ve visited and walk in the steps of those who made the Bible what it is. I hope you get to meet people like those I’ve met and interact with scholars and chefs and mothers and worshippers and skeptics. In the end, whether you are a Catholic, Protestant, or Orthodox Christian; Reform, Conservative, or Orthodox Jew; deist; secular humanist; Pastafarian; agnostic; or atheist, we can all agree that it is how we should act—doing justice, loving kindness, and walking humbly—and how we should treat others—feeding the hungry, clothing the naked, welcoming strangers, visiting the sick and imprisoned—that is ultimately the unifying message cultivated from the experiences of those who lived in the cities that built the Bible.
PHOTO SECTION
A maṣṣeboth, or a collection of standing stones, discovered as part of a large cultic and ceremonial precinct in the upper city of Tel Ḥaṣor in northern Israel, dating from the eighteenth to sixteenth centuries bce. Each stone likely represents a deity worshipped in the city, a practice later forbidden by the Bible (Deut. 16:22).
The author removing stones from a water cistern at Tel ‘Azeqah, Israel. Remains inside the cistern reveal evidence of a destruction layer from the time of the Babylonian invasion of Judah.
The last buckets of dirt excavated from the Area S2 water cistern 16½ feet below ground at Tel ‘Azeqah, Israel. The cistern is plastered on the bottom and all sides to prevent water loss.
A close-up of the Akkadian cuneiform text of the law code of Babylonian King Hammurabi.
A view of the descent into the water system at Tel Megiddo. The tunnel is 115 feet deep and 230 feet long.
A view of graduate student Cale Staley descending into the subterranean water system at Tel Megiddo.
The view of the Temple of Hephaestus, Greek god of fire, volcanoes, blacksmiths, and craftsmen, from atop the Acropolis, with the ancient Agora of Athens in the foreground and the modern city of Athens in the background.
A view of the Areopagus of Athens mentioned in Acts 17 as seen from atop the Acropolis, with the modern city of Athens in the background.
The author doing his best Apostle Paul impression on the Areopagus of Athens. Several of the monuments to various Greek deities (under restoration) are easily visible on the Acropolis in the background.
The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem stands where the Jewish Temple likely once stood. The present shrine was built in 691 CE and commemorates the Muslim Prophet Muḥammad’s traditional Isrā’ and Mi‘rāj, or Night Journey into the heavens.
The Western Wall in Jerusalem, the holiest place in Judaism.
A panel from the Arch of Titus depicts a processional of treasures taken from the Jerusalem Temple as the spoils of war following Rome’s Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. Visible are the golden Menorah (Exod. 25:31–40), trumpets (Num. 10:2), and a ceremonial table, likely the Table of the Bread of the Presence (Exod. 25:30).
The Mount of Olives across the Qidron Valley east of Jerusalem as seen from the top of the Temple Mount walls.
The famous Cave 4 at Qumran, as seen from the visitor’s viewpoint south of the Khirbet Qumran settlement.
A view of the Qumran plateau visitor’s lookout from inside Cave 4.
PHOTO BY YUVAL PELEG ()
The author inside Cave 4 at Qumran.
The Door of Humility, the entrance to the Church of the Nativity in Bethleḥem, West Bank, built to commemorate the traditional birthplace of Jesus of Nazareth.
IMAGE COURTESY ISRAEL MUSEUM.
The “Pilate Stone” on display in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem. Discovered at Caesarea Maritima, the Latin inscription preserves the line “[PO]NTIVS PILATVS … [PRAEF]ECTVS IVDA[EA]E,” or “Pontius Pilate …Prefect of Judea.” Pilate served in the position from 26 to 36 CE.
The iconic Flavian Amphitheater, commonly known as the Colosseum of Rome, built from 72 to 80 CE.
The inside of the Colosseum in Rome depicting the hypogeum, the labyrinth of passages and storage chambers that sat beneath the Colosseum floor.
NOTES
Introduction
1. George Rush et al., “Nicole Calls In A Scripture Doctor.”
2. For more on this topic, please read my article, “Why Christians Should Adopt the BCE/CE Dating System.”
3. This calculation represents the number of pages, not simply the number of books.
Chapter 1: Phoenician Cities
1. See Tzaferis, “Jewish Tombs at and near Giv’at ha-Mivtar, Jerusalem” and “Crucifixion.”
2. Not only do we have many signs of wealth in Phoenicia and their colonies; we also have mentions of Phoenicia by the Greek geographer and historian Strabo (Geography 3.5.11; 16.2.22–24), who, for example, states that the Phoenicians engaged in a lucrative trade with other nations. For more on Phoenicia, see Moscati, ed., The Phoenicians.
3. As in Spanish, the letter b often produces an English v sound. For example, Be’er Sheba is pronounced Be’er Sheva.
4. Bartoloni, “Commerce and Industry.”
5. The Phoenician alphabet, which is often referred to as the Proto-Cana‘anite alphabet for inscriptions using this alphabet dating earlier than the tenth century BCE, is actually derived from an earlier pictographic alphabet called the Proto-Sinaitic alphabet, named after several rudimentary inscriptions dating to the seventeenth to sixteenth centuries BCE discovered on a mountain called Ṣerabiṭ el-Ḥadim on the Sinai Peninsula. Another example of this earliest of alphabets comes from the Wadi el-Hol inscriptions, also from Egypt, dating to the nineteenth to eighteenth centuries BCE. The Proto-Sinaitic alphabet represents a transitional state between Egyptian hieroglyphics (pictures that represent words) and pictures that came to represent sounds. Thus, the stylized pictures that became the letters (or graphemes) in this consonantal alphabet look like the objects
they once represented, and the sound (or phoneme) represented by each grapheme was often the first sound of the name of the object. Scholars call this an acrophonic script. For example, the ’aleph looks like an ox (West Semitic: ’lph) with horns, the mem looks like water (Heb: ayim), the ‘ayin looks like an eye (Heb: ‘yin), the resh looks like a human head (Heb: o’sh), etc. These Proto-Sinaitic symbols evolved into the letters of the Proto-Cana‘anite and ultimately the Phoenician alphabet. For more on the early history of the Semitic alphabet, see Rollston, Writing and Literacy in the World of Ancient Israel, 11–46, and Naveh, Early History of the Alphabet, 23–42.
6. According to Herodotus’s Histories 5:58: “These Phoenicians . . . among many other kinds of learning, brought into Hellas (Greece) the alphabet, which had hitherto been unknown, as I think, to the Greeks; and presently as time went on the sound and the form of the letters were changed. At this time the Greeks . . . having been taught the letters by the Phoenicians, used them with some few changes of form, and in so doing gave to these characters (as indeed was but just, seeing that the Phoenicians had brought them to Hellas) the name of Phoenician” (Herodotus: The Persian Wars, Volume 3, Books 5–7, 62–65).
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