identified a mathematical trend in the flight of the galaxies: Hubble (1929).
When Dutch astronomer Willem de Sitter . . . casually referred to several astronomers: de Sitter (1930), p. 169.
“I consider the velocity-distance relation”: Hubble Papers, Henry Huntington Library, San Marino, California, Hubble to de Sitter, August 21, 1930.
“I regard such first steps as by far the most important of all”: Lowell Observatory Archives, Hubble to Slipher, March 6, 1953.
“emerged from a combination of radial velocities measured by Slipher”: Hubble (1953), p. 658.
CHAPTER 26. THE PRIMEVAL ATOM
This chapter was first published in Technology Review, Bartusiak (2009c).
“exceptionally brilliant”: Harvard University Archives, Eddington to Shapley, May 3, 1924.
Lemaître traveled to the United States: Details on his studies there can be found in Kragh (1987), pp. 118–19, and Kragh (1990), p. 542.
find him just by following the sound of his full, loud laugh: McCrea (1990), p. 204.
Two models were already in circulation: Einstein (1917) and de Sitter (1917).
“combine the advantages of both”: Lemaître (1931c), p. 483.
“a cosmical effect of the expansion of the universe”: Ibid., p. 489.
A similar solution, conceived independently in 1922 by the Russian mathematician Aleksandr Friedmann: Friedmann (1922).
“Your calculations are correct, but your physical insight is abominable”: Smith (1990), p. 57.
“It remains to find the cause”: Lemaître (1931c), p. 489.
“unique quantum”: Lemaître (1931a).
recoiled from any suggestion that his primeval atom had been inspired by the biblical story of Genesis: Kragh (1990), p. 542, and Kragh (2007), pp. 152–53.
Godart brought confirmation: Deprit (1984), p. 391.
CHAPTER 27. PROVING THE BIG BANG
first appeared in a 1948 scientific paper almost as an afterthought: Alpher and Herman (1948).
disintegrated within their theoretical computations: See Bethe (1939).
George Gamow simply looked around for another locale: Alpher and Herman (2001), p. 20.
Their first report on this mathematical recipe, a one-page synopsis: Alpher, Bethe, and Gamow (1948).
joined by fellow lab employee Robert Herman: Alpher and Herman (2001), p. 72.
“the first thoroughly modern analysis”: Weinberg (1977), p. 124.
“the temperature in the universe at the present time”: Alpher and Herman (1948), p. 775.
didn’t link it to cosmology at all: Alpher and Herman (2001), p. 118.
“did not know that they ought to try”: Weinberg (1977), p. 127.
holding a press conference to generate attention: D’Agnese (1999), p. 65.
didn’t resurface until the mid-1960s: Dicke et al. (1965); Doroshkevich and Novikov (1964).
“But we should not indulge in sermonizing”: Alpher and Herman (2001), p. 122.
CHAPTER 28. IT’S NOW EINSTEIN’S UNIVERSE
This chapter was originally published in National Geographic, Bartusiak (2005a).
On January 29, 1931, the world’s premier physicist: “Einstein Guest at Mount Wilson” (1931) and Christianson (1995), pp. 205–6.
“Well, my husband does that on the back of an old envelope”: Clark (1971), p. 434.
“describes how our universe was born”: Bartusiak (2005a), p. 116.
“It does not seem that something like that can exist!”: Fölsing (1997), p. 46, and Schilpp (1959), p. 53.
Einstein’s special theory of relativity: Einstein (1905).
“The idea is amusing and enticing”: Fölsing (1997), p. 196.
British astronomers actually measured this warping: Dyson, Eddington, and Davidson (1920).
Einstein was the first to try: Einstein (1917). He was prompted to do this after a discussion of general relativity with Willem de Sitter in the fall of 1916. Kragh (2007), p. 131.
“as required by the fact of the small velocities of the stars”: Translated in Lorentz, Einstein, Minkowski, and Weyl (1923), p. 188.
“The red shift of distant nebulae has smashed my old construction”: “Red Shift of Nebulae a Puzzle, Says Einstein” (1931).
biggest blunder: This is not a direct quote from Einstein. The Russian-American physicist George Gamow relayed this story in his autobiography, saying Einstein used the now-famous phrase while they were having a chat one day. Gamow (1970), p. 44.
“The evolution of the world can be compared to a display of fireworks”: Lemaître (1950), p. 78. He introduced the idea in a series of papers published in Nature. See Lemaître (1931a,b).
“The notion of a beginning . . . is repugnant”: Eddington (1931), pp. 449–50.
“Answering those questions”: Bartusiak (2005a), p. 120.
A birthday cake for the universe would require around 14 billion candles: Freedman (2001). The nearly 14-billion-year age of the universe was also pegged by measurements of the cosmological microwave background. See Bennett et al. (2003, 2013).
space-time is ballooning outward at an accelerating pace: Riess et al. (1998) and Perlmutter et al. (1999).
“The need came back, and the cosmological constant was waiting”: Bartusiak (2005a), p. 121.
CHAPTER 29. THE BIG BURP
not with a bang, but with a sort of cosmic burp: Guth (1981).
“we began to wonder why the universe was here at all”: Bartusiak (1986), pp. 241–42.
he called it inflation: Ibid., pp. 243–44.
“The universe is the ultimate free lunch”: Guth (1997), p. 15.
figured out ways to get one of Guth’s many bubbles to balloon: Waldrop (1981), p. 122.
CHAPTER 30. THE GREAT ESCAPE
a burst of gamma rays recorded on July 2, 1967: Klebesadel, Strong, and Olson (1973).
they came to suspect that . . . with a distinct cause: Cline et al. (2011).
convert that rotational energy into radiation: Hawking and Israel (1989), p. 264.
“Black holes ain’t so black”: Hawking (1988), p. 99.
his report was soon published in the journal Nature: Hawking (1974).
release the energy of a million one-megaton hydrogen bombs: Ibid., p. 30.
“Sorry, Stephen, but this is absolute rubbish”: Boslough (1985), p. 70.
shedding the last of their mass: Hawking (1974), p. 30.
“Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence”: Harris (1977), p. 1.
CHAPTER 31. MEET THE MULTIVERSE
This chapter was first published in Harvard Magazine, Bartusiak (2005c), as a review of physicist Lisa Randall’s book Warped Passages (Randall 2005): Marcia Bartusiak, “Meeting the Multiverse.” Harvard Magazine, November/December 2005, pp. 19–22.
“at the edge of a precipitous, isolated cliff”: Randall (2005), p. 73.
“all attempts to make string theory realistic”: Ibid., p. 70.
“trailblazers who are trying . . . or contradict a model’s claim”: Ibid., pp. 71, 72.
“String theory introduces new ideas”: Ibid., p. 295.
“Thinking about branes makes you aware”: Ibid., p. 60.
“Experimental tests of competing hypotheses”: Ibid., p. 242.
CHAPTER 32. WHEN THE UNIVERSE BEGAN, WHAT TIME WAS IT?
This chapter was first published in Technology Review, Bartusiak (1995). It draws on a number of sources, including Coveney and Highfield (1992), Davies (1995), Hawking (1988), Isham (1993, 1994), Kuchař (1992, 1993), Penrose (1989), Rovelli (1993).
“It’s a crisis”: Bartusiak (1995), p. 56.
“The problem of time is one of the deepest issues”: Isham (1993), p. 160.
“the mind of God”: Hawking (1988), p. 175.
“Henceforth space by itself, and time by itself”: Minkowski (1923), p. 75. This was originally presented as an address to the Eightieth Assembly of German Natural Scientists and Physicians, Cologne, Germany, September
21, 1908.
“In general relativity time is completely arbitrary”: Bartusiak (1995), p. 58.
“Here the very arena is being subjected to quantum effects”: Ibid., p. 59.
“This, of course, is the type of clock we’ve been used to”: Ibid.
“matter becomes denser and denser”: Ibid., p. 60.
“The changing geometry allows you to see”: Ibid.
“You can formulate your quantum mechanics”: Ibid.
“You must imagine all possible geometries”: Davies (1995), p. 181.
“Forget time”: Bartusiak (1995), p. 60.
“First with special relativity and then with general relativity”: Bartusiak (1995), pp. 60–61.
“Then, in certain situations”: Ibid., p. 61.
“In the 1500s, people thought”: Ibid.
“having gotten rid of time”: Ibid., p. 62.
“the world was made, not in time”: Augustine (1998), p. 456.
“We wouldn’t have believed”: Bartusiak (1995), p. 63.
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