Richard L Epstein

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by Critical Thinking (3rd Edition) (pdf)


  for, 84-85,87-90

  authority,

  advertising, 94

  bad appeal to, 97

  affirmative categorical claim, 375

  we should trust?, 87-90

  affirming the consequent, 129, 200

  average, 27J-274

  "all" claim, 760

  alcoholism, 67,328-329

  bad argument, conclusion of, 46

  alternatives, 114

  biased sample, 283-284

  ambiguous sentence, 16

  biased source, 89

  analogy, reasoning by, 253-259

  begging the question, 38, 202

  generalizations and, 291

  Big Lie, 84

  in legal reasoning, 257-259

  Brown v. Board of Education, 224

  steps in evaluating, 257

  Bulletin of Advanced Reasoning and

  "and" claim, 115

  Knowledge, 242-245

  formalization of, 360

  burden of proof, shifting, 185, 202

  anecdotal evidence, 287

  antecedent, 121

  calling in your debts, 193

  appeal to authority, bad, 97, 201

  categorical claim, 374-375

  appeal to common belief, bad, 97, 201

  categorical syllogism, 381

  appeal to common practice, 201,203

  standard form, 382

  appeal to emotion, 191-195, 201

  causal claim, 301

  appeal to fear, 192

  general, 303

  appeal to pity, 191

  cause-in-population vs., 320

  appeal to spite, 193

  particular, 303

  apple polishing, 194

  causal factor, 312

  apples and oranges, 268

  cause

  arguing backwards, 96. See also

  "can cause" vs., 312

  affirming the consequent,

  close to effect, 306-307

  arguing backwards with "all", 164, 200

  common, 305-306

  arguing backwards with "almost all",

  how to look for the, 317-318

  171, 200

  in populations, 320-323

  arguing backwards with "no", 766,200

  intervening, 314

  argument, 5

  joint, 312

  good, 37

  looking for, 309,317-318

  tests to be good, 42

  437

  438 Index

  cause (continued)

  contradictory (continued)

  makes a difference, 305

  of a general claim, 161

  necessary criteria for, 307

  of an "and" claim, 115

  precedes effect, 305

  of an "or" claim, 115

  testable, 314,317-318

  contrapositive, 124

  tracing backwards, 306

  formalization of, 363

  cause and effect

  contrary of a claim, 378

  described with claims, 302

  control group, 320-321

  general, 303

  controlled experiment: cause-to-effect,

  generalization needed for, 303

  320-321

  in populations, 320-323

  correlation for cause and effect, 303, 305

  necessary criteria for, 307

  counterarguments, 147-149

  normal conditions for, 303, 307, 320

  diagramming, 389-390

  particular, 303

  Country Joe MacDonald, 254

  post hoc ergo propter hoc, 308-309

  criteria for accepting or rejecting claims,

  reversing, 308

  84-85, 87-90

  claim, 3. See also type of claim,

  critical thinking, 5

  e.g., subjective claim,

  classical abstraction, 359

  decision making, 351

  coincidence, 309

  definition, 26

  common belief, bad appeal to, 97

  examples and —s, 355-356

  common cause, 305-306

  good, 29

  common thread, 320

  not a claim, 26

  comparisons, reasoning about.

  persuasive, 28, 181

  See analogy,

  steps in making, 30

  composition, fallacy of, 257

  steps in understanding, 108

  compound claim, 113

  denying the antecedent, 130, 200

  truth-value of, 362

  dependent premise. See independent premise,

  concealed claim, 181-186

  descriptive claim, 24

  conclusion, 5

  as conclusion, 195

  follows from, 40

  diagrams, checking for validity with, 163-167

  of a bad argument, 46

  diagramming arguments, 385-390

  conditional claim, 121

  differences, in judging analogies, 256-257

  contradictory of, 121

  direct way of reasoning with "all", 164, 200

  formalization of, 361

  direct way of reasoning with "almost all",

  confidence level, 289

  171, 200

  confusing objective and subjective, 22, 201

  direct way of reasoning with conditionals,

  conjunction, 360

  127, 200

  consequent, 121

  direct way of reasoning with "no", 166, 200

  content fallacy, 201

  direct ways of refuting an argument, 149

  contradiction, 85, 90

  disjunction, 361

  between actions and words, 99

  disjunctive syllogism, 117

  See also reducing to the absurd,

  downplayer, 183

  contradictory of a claim, 114

  drawing the line fallacy, 16, 201

  of a categorical claim, 378-380

  dubious claim, 38

  of a conditional, 121, 363

  dysphemism, 182

  Index 439

  effect. See cause and effect.

  hasty generalization, 287

  euphemism, 182

  hyperbole, 183

  evaluating an argument, steps in, 107

  "even if", 122

  "if and only if ", 127

  examples, summary of how to use in

  "if... then ...". See conditional claim.

  reasoning, 355-357

  implausible claim, 38

  excluding possibilities, 117

  impersonal standards, 20

  exclusive "or" claim, formalization of,

  inclusive "or" claim, formalization of, 360

  360, 365

  independent premises, 223, 386

  experience, personal,

  indicator word, 48, 63, 221

  in evaluating claims, 84-85

  indirect way of reasoning with

  experiment, for cause and effect,

  conditionals, 128, 200

  controlled, cause-to-effect, 320-321

  inductive evidence, 280

  uncontrolled, cause-to-effect, 321

  inferring, 74

  uncontrolled, effect-to-cause, 321-322

  innuendo, 185

  explanations, 382

  Internet, 88, 89, 91, 94-95, 155

  intersubjective claim, 20

  fallacy, 16, 799-204.

  intervening cause, 314

  See also type of fallacy, e.g.,

  invalid argument, 39-41

  slippery slope,

  irrationality, mark of, 61

  false dilemma, 118-1 19, 201

  irrelevant premise, 69, 202

  feel-good argument, 194

  "is" from "ought", 65

  "follows from", 40

  issue, 5

  foreseeable consequence of a cause, 313

  joint causes, 312

  gambler's fallacy, 285

  journals. See med
ia.

  general causal claim, 303

  judgment, suspending, 61,84,90

  general claims, 759-162, 356

  generalities

  King, Martin Luther, Jr., 66

  precise, 170

  vague, 171-172

  law of large numbers, 285, 309

  generalization, 219-280

  legal reasoning, 44, 257-259

  analogies and —s, 291

  Lincoln, Abraham, 27, 61

  hasty, 287

  loaded question, 182

  needed for cause and effect, 303

  premises needed to be good, 289

  major term of a syllogism, 381

  statistical, 279, 289-290

  mark of irrationality, 61

  generic premise, 201

  margin of error, 289

  glue, 54, 55, 59, 64-66

  Marx, Groucho, 90

  good argument, 37

  mean, 273

  tests for a, 42

  media, 88-90

  good definition, 29

  median, 274

  graphs, 270-273

  memory, 85

  Guide to Repairing Arguments, 62, 63

  middle term of a syllogism, 381

  See also unrepairable arguments.

  minor term of a syllogism, 381

  mistaking the person for the argument,

  haphazard sampling, 284, 286

  98, 201

  440 Index

  mistaking the person for the claim, 97, 201

  premise (continued)

  mode, 274

  evaluating, 83-91

  modus ponens, 127

  independent, 223, 386

  modus tollens, 128

  irrelevant, 69

  moral claims, 24

  prescriptive claim, 24

  as conclusion, 65, 194

  necessary and sufficient conditions, 124-125

  Principle of Rational Discussion, 60

  necessary criteria for cause and effect, 307

  violations of, 6 0 - 6 1 , 2 0 2

  negation of a claim, 114

  probabilities, 285

  formalization of, 360

  proof substitute, 184

  negative categorical claim, 375

  "no" claim, 160

  qualifier, 183

  no-matter-what argument, 132

  quality of a categorical claim, 375

  normal conditions for cause and effect,

  quantity of a categorical claim, 375

  303, 307, 320

  quotation marks, 18

  objective claim, 20

  random sampling, 284-286

  confusing with subjective claim, 22, 201

  Rational Discussion. See Principle of

  "only" claim, 161

  Rational Discussion,

  "only i f " , 126

  rationality, 62

  opinion, 22, 24

  reasoning by analogy. See analogy,

  "or" claim, 113-118

  reasoning backwards, 129,130.

  contradictory of, 115

  See also arguing backwards;

  exclusive, formalization of, 360, 365

  affirming the consequent,

  inclusive, formalization of, 560-361

  reasoning from hypotheses, 134

  reasoning in a chain with "all", 165, 200

  particular categorical claim, 375

  reasoning in a chain with "almost all",

  particular causal claim, 303

  172, 200

  percentages, 268-269

  reasoning in a chain with conditionals,

  perfectionist dilemma, 119

  / J 2 - 1 3 3

  personal experience in

  reasoning in a chain with "some",

  evaluating claims, 84—85

  165, 200

  personal standards, 20

  reducing to the absurd, 150

  persuasive definition, 27, 181

  refutation, phony, 9 9 , 1 5 1 , 2 0 1

  phony refutation, 99, 151,201

  refuting an argument, 98, 149-152

  plausible claim, 38

  by analogy, 150,257

  confusing with possible, 97

  directly, 149

  population, 280

  See also phony refutation; strawman;

  cause and effect in, 320

  slippery slope; ridicule,

  variation in, 290

  relevance, 68-69, 202

  post hoc ergo propter hoc reasoning,

  repairing arguments. See Guide to Repairing

  308-309

  Arguments; unrepairable arguments,

  precise generalities, 170

  representative sample, 284-286

  predicate of a categorical claim, 375

  reversing cause and effect, 308

  premise, 5

  ridicule, 151, 184, 202

  adding or deleting. See Guide to

  risk, 7 1 , 2 6 9 , 2 9 0 - 2 9 1

  Repairing Arguments.

  Index 441

  sample, 280

  truth-value, 3, 359

  biased—, 283-254

  making a judgment about, 84

  haphazardly chosen, 284, 286

  of compound claims, 362

  randomly chosen, 284-286

  two times zero is still zero, 268

  representative —, 284-286

  two wrongs make a right, 193

  size of—, 287-288,290

  scientific method. See cause, how to look for.

  unbiased sample. See representative

  selection bias, 323

  sample.

  selective attention, 286

  uncontrolled experiment: cause-to-

  shifting the burden of proof, 185, 202

  effect, 321

  slanters, 181,202

  uncontrolled experiment: effect-to-

  and good arguments, 185, 346

  cause, 321-322

  slippery slope argument, 133, 151,201

  universal categorical claim, 375

  "some" claim, 160

  unrepairable arguments, 68

  sound argument, 398

  unstated premise or conclusion, 59

  square of opposition, 379-380

  See also Guide to Repairing

  standard form of a categorical claim, 374

  Arguments.

  standard form of a categorical syllogism, 382

  up-player, 783

  standards

  prescriptive claims and, 24-25

  vague generalities, 171-172

  subjectivity and, 19-20

  vague sentence, 74

  statistical generalization, 279, 289-290

  in analogies, 256

  statistics, 268-269, 273-274

  valid argument, 39

  strawman, 752, 202

  checking with diagrams, 163-167

  strong argument, 40-41

  checking with truth-tables, 368-370

  vs. valid argument, 48, 345

  valid/invalid, strong to weak, 41

  structural fallacy, 799-200

  examples and showing not valid, 356

  subalternate, 379

  vs. strong argument, 48, 345

  subcontrary of a claim, 378

  valid argument form

  subject of a categorical claim, 375

  formalization of, 368

  subjective claim, 20

  using conditionals, 127-133, 200

  confusing with objective claim, 22, 201

  using general claims, 163-166, 200

  linking behavior to thought, 67

  value judgments, 24

  subjectivist fallacy, 22

  variation in a population, 290

  sufficient condition, 724-125

  violation of Principle of Rational Discussion,

  suspending judgment, 61,84,90

  60-61,202

  syllogism, categorical, 387-383

  virtue, 7, 351

  syllo
gism, disjunctive, 117

  synonym, 27

  Warren, Chief Justice Earl, 224

  weak argument, 40-41

  tautology, 363

  showing that argument is weak, 43, 357

  testable cause, 314,317-318

  weaseler, 184

  tests for an argument to be good, 42

  wishful thinking, 795

  truth-tables, 359-372

  Document Outline

  Front Cover Contents

  Preface to the Student

  Preface to the Instructor

  Acknowledgments

  The FUNDAMENTALS 1 Critical Thinking? Writing Lesson 1

  2 What Are We Arguing About? Writing Lesson 2

  3 What Is a Good Argument? Writing Lesson 3

  Cartoon Writing Lesson A

  4 Repairing Arguments Writing Lesson 4

  5 Is That True? Writing Lesson 5

  Review Chapters 1-5

  The STRUCTURE of ARGUMENTS 6 Compound Claims 1. Compound claims and "or" claims

  2. The contradictory of a claim

  3. Reasoning with "or" claims

  4. False dilemmas

  5 Conditionals and their contradictories

  6 Necessary and sufficient conditions

  7 Valid and weak forms of arguments using conditionals

  8 Reasoning in a chain and the slippery slope

  9 Reasoning from hypotheses

  Writing Lesson 6

  Cartoon Writing Lesson C

  7 Counter-arguments Writing Lesson 7

  8 General Claims Writing Lesson 8

  Review Chapters 6-8

  AVOIDING BAD ARGUMENTS 9 Concealed Claims

  10 Too Much Emotion

  11 Fallacies A summary of bad arguments A. What is a Fallacy?

  B. Structural Fallacies

  C. Content Fallacies

  D. Violating the Principle of Rational Discussion

  E. Is This Really a Mistake?

  F. So It's Bad, So What?

  Writing Lesson 9

  Cartoon Writing Lesson D

  ARGUMENTS for ANALYSIS Short Arguments for Analysis

  Complex Arguments for Analysis

  REASONING ABOUT OUR EXPERIENCE 12 Reasoning by Analogy Writing Lesson 10

  13 Numbers?

  14 Generalizing

  15 Cause and Effect Writing Lesson 11

  Review Chapters 12-15

  Evaluating Reasoning Cartoon Writing Lesson E

  Composing Good Arguments Cartoon Writing Lesson F

  Writing Lesson 12

  Making Decisions

  APPENDICES Using Examples in Reasoning

  Truth-Tables

  Aristotelian Logic

  Diagramming Arguments

  Glossary

  Answers to Selected Exercises

  Index

  Back Cover

 

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