by Frank McLynn
The Indian and the peasant are so inextricably mixed in Mexican history that ethnological, historical and sociological studies cannot really be considered as categories apart. Race and culture come into sharper focus in: Manning Nash, ed., Handbook of Middle American Indians (Austin 1967); Nelson Reed, The Caste War of Yucatan (Stanford 1964); Alfonso Fabila, Las tribus Yaquis de Sonora: su cultura y anhelada autodeterminacion (Mexico City 1940); Evelyn Hu-Dehart, `Development of Rural Rebellion: Pacification of the Yaquis in the Late Porfiriato', HAHR 54 (1974), PP. 72-93; T. G. Powell, `Mexican Intellectuals and the Indian Question, 1876-1911', HAHR 48 (1968), pp. 19-36; George M. McBride, The Land Systems of Mexico (New York 1923); Leticia Reina, Las rebeliones campesinas en Mexico 1819-1906 (Mexico City 1980); Donald F. Stevens, `Agrarian Policy and Instability in Porfirian Mexico', Americas 39 (1982), pp. 153-66; Lucio Mendeta y Nunez, El problema agraria de Mexico (Mexico City 1966); Friedrich Katz, `Labour Conditions on Haciendas in Porfirian Mexico: Some Trends and Tendencies', HAHR 54 (1974); Henry A. Landsberger, ed., Latin American Peasant Movements (Cornell 1969); D. A. Brading, Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution (Cambridge 1980); Friedrich Katz, La servidumbre agrario en Mexico en la epoca Porfiriana (Mexico City 1980); Moises de la Pena, El pueblo y su tierra: Mito y realidad de la reforma agraria en Mexico (Mexico City 1964); Paul Friedrich, Agrarian Revolt in a Mexican Village (Englewood Cliffs 1970); Moises Gonzalez Navarro, `El trabajo forzoso en Mexico, 1821-1917', Historia Mexicana 27 (1978), pp. 588-615; F. Gonzalez Roa, El aspecto agrario de la revolution Mexicana (Mexico City 1919).
Although land reform, the hacienda and the Indian were the principal problems facing Diaz, they were far from the only ones. For the other players in the drama and the other conflicts he had to resolve see: Robert E. Quirk, The Mexican Revolution and the Catholic Church 1910-29 (Bloomington 1973); Paul J. Vanderwood, Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police and Mexican Development (1981); Juan Felipe Leal, `El estado y el bloque en poder en Mexico: 1867-1914', Historia Mexicana 23 (1974), PP. 716-21; Paul J. Vanderwood, `Los rurales: producto de una necesidad social,' Historia Mexicana 22 (1972), pp. 34-51; Berta Ulloa, `Las relaciones mexicano-norteamericanas, 191o-11', Historia Mexicana 15 (1966), pp. 25-46; W. Schiff, `German Military Penetration into Mexico During the Late Diaz Period', HAHR 39 (1959), PP. 568-79; Frank Tannenbaum, Peace by Revolution: Mexico after 1910 (1966); Berta Ulloa, La Revolution intervenida: relaciones diplomkticas entre Mexico y Estados Unidos, 1910-1914 (Mexico City 1971); Karl M. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 1821-1973: Conflict and Co-existence (New York 1974). On the disputed question of the importance of industrial workers see Elsa Cecilia Frost, ed., El trabajo y los trabajadores en la historia de Mexico (Mexico City 1979) and Alan Knight, `The Working Class and the Mexican Revolution c.19oo-1920', ,ALAS 16 (1984), PP. 51-79. On this subject the would-be seminal article is F. X. Guerra, `La revolution mexicaine: d'abord une revolution miniere?' Annales E.S.C. 36 (1981), PP. 784-814, answered by Alan Knight in `La revolution mexicaine: revolution miniere ou revolution serrano?' Annales E.S.C. 38 (1983), PP. 449-59.
The standard biography of Madero in English is Stanley R. Ross, Franciso I. Madero: Apostle of Mexican Democracy (New York 1955). There are many studies in Spanish, notably Alfonso Taracena, Madero: Vida del hombre y del politico (Mexico City 1937); Gabriel Ferrer de Mendiolea, Vida de Francisco Madero (Mexico City 1945); Pedro Lamicq, Madero (Mexico City 1958). The Archivo de Don Francisco Madero has been published in two volumes (Mexico City 1985). See also Maria de los Angeles Suarez del Solar, Antologia de Madero (Mexico City 1987). Madero's complex psychology is analysed further in Jose C. Valades, Imaginacion y realidad de Francisco I. Madero, 2 vols (Mexico City 196o); Enrique Krauze, Francisco Madero: Mistico de la libertad (Mexico City 1987) and Jose N. Rosales, Madero y el espiritismo (Mexico City 1973). Background material on the wider Madero family is provided in Carlos B. Madero, Relacion de la familia Madero (Parral, Coahuila 1973) and the supremely valuable work by Jose Vasconcelos, Don Evaristo Madero: Biografia de un patricio (Mexico City 1958). A biography of Madero can be constructed from the multi-volume production by Gene Z. Hanrahan, Documents on the Mexican Revolution, Vol. r: The Madero Revolution (1976); Vol. 2: The Madero Revolution to the Overthrow of Diaz (1976); and Vol. 4: The Murder of Madero (1981).
Madero's political movement is put under the microscope in Charles C. Cumberland, Mexican Revolution: Genesis under Madero (Austin 1952); Moises Ocoa Campos, La revolucion mexicana: sus causas politicas, 2 vols (Mexico City 1968); Hans Werner Tobler, La revolucion mexicana: transformacion social y cambio politico 1876-1940 (Mexico City 1994); Alfonso Taracena, La verdadera revolucion mexicana 1900-1911 (Mexico City 1991); Ramon Prida, De la dictadura a la anarquia (Mexico City 1958); Jean Meyer, La revolution mexicaine: 1910-1940 (Paris 1973); Jose C. Valades, Historia general de la Revolucion Mexicana, 9 vols (Mexico City 1985); Jorge Vera Estai ol, Historia de la Revolucion Mexicana: origenes y resultados (Mexico City 1967); Friedrich Katz and Lloyd Jane-Dale, eds., Porfirio Diaz frente al descontento regional (Mexico City 1986). See also Francisco Vasquez Gomez, Memorias politicas 1901-1913 (Mexico City 1982); Jerry W. Knudson, `When did Francisco Madero Decide on Revolution?' Americas 30 (1974), PP. 529-34; Leone B. Moats, Thunder in their Veins (1933). The Creelman interview is recapitulated in James Creelman, Diaz: Master of Mexico (New York I911).
Other works with a direct bearing on Madero's situation in 1909-1910 are as follows: Juan Felipe Leal, La burguesia y el estado Mexicano (Mexico City 1972); Juan Sanchez Azcona, Apuntes para la historia de la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 1961); G. N. Santos, Memorias (Mexico City 1984); Alfonso Taracena, Madero, victima del imperialismo yanqui (Mexico City 1973); Pindaro Uriostegui Miranda, Testimonios del proceso revolucionario de Mexico (Mexico City 1970); Miguel Sanchez Lamego, Historia militar de la revolucion en la epoca maderista (Mexico City 1983); Pedro Antonio Santos, Memorias (San Luis Potosi 1990); Luis L. Leon, Cronica del poder: En los recuerdos de un politico en el Mexico revolucionario (Mexico City 1987); Gonzalo G. Rivero, Hacia la verdad: Episodios de la revolucion (Mexico City 1911); Anita Brenner, The Wind that Swept Mexico: The History of the Mexican Revolution (Austin 1971); Eric Jauffret, Revolution et sacrifice au Mexique (Paris 1986).
Madero's attitude too the land question appears in Robert Holden, Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876-1911 (De Kalb, Illinois 1994) and William K. Meyers, Forge of Progress, Crucible of Revolt: Origins of the Mexican Revolution in the Comarca Lagunera, 1880-1911 (Albuquerque 1994). For Madero's appeal to the ordinary man and to women see William H. Beezley, `In Search of Everyday Mexicans in the Revolution', Revista Interamericana de Bibliografia 33 (1983), PP. 366-82; Begona Hernandez y Lazo et al., eds., Las mujeres en la revolution mexicana, 1884-1920: Biografias de mujeres revolucionarias (Mexico City 1992).
THE RISE OF ZAPATA
The fundamental, and unsurpassed, study of Zapata is John Womack, Zapata and the Mexican Revolution (1969). This is qualified in some minor aspects by Samuel Brunk, Emiliano Zapata: Revolution and Betrayal in Mexico (Albuquerque 1995). But all the Zapata biographies usually yield a nugget or two, either in the form of a striking fact or an interpretive slant. See, additionally, Peter E. Newell, Zapata of Mexico (1979); Roger Parkinson, Zapata: A Biography (1980); John Steinbeck, Viva Zapata (i99i); Roberto Blanco Moreno, Zapata (1975); Jesus Sotelo Inclan, Raiz y razon de Zapata (Mexico City 1970); Alicia Lopez de Rodriguez, Emiliano Zapata: biografia (Cuernavaca 1982); Porfirio Palacios, Emiliano Zapata: datos biografico-historicos (Mexico City 1960); Baltasar Dromundo, Vida de Emiliano Zapata (Mexico City 1961); German Lizt Arzubide, Zapata (Mexico City 1973); Anita Aguilar and Rosalind Rosoff, Emiliano Zapata: hombre de tierra (Mexico City 1986); Laura Espejez, Alicia Olivera and Salvador Rueda, eds., Emiliano Zapata: Antologia (Mexico City 1988); Enrique Krauze, El amor a la tierra: Emiliano Zapata (Mexico City 1987).
The context in which the zapatista movement arose is examined in a numbe
r of works: John Tutino, From Insurrection to Revolution in Mexico: Social Bases of Agrarian Violence 1750-1940 (Princeton 1986); Gildardo Magana and Carlos Perez Guerrero, Emiliano Zapata y el agrarismo en Mexico, 5 vols (Mexico City 1952); Arturo Warman, `We Come to Object': The Peasants of Morelos and the National State (Baltimore 1980); Robert A. White, `Mexico, the Zapata Movement and the Revolution', in Henry A. Landsberger, ed., Latin American Peasant Movements (Ithaca, N.Y. 1969); Antonio Diaz Soto y Gama, La revolucion agraria del sur y Emiliano Zapata su caudillo (Mexico City 1976); Donald F. Stevens, `Agrarian Policy and Instability in Porfirian Mexico', Americas 39 (1982), pp. 153-66; R. Waterbury, `Non-revolutionary Peasants: Oaxaca Compared to Morelos in the Mexican Revolution', Comparative Studies in Society and History 17 (1975); Moises Gonzalez Navarro, `El trabajo forzoso en Mexico, 1821-1917', Historia Mexicana 27 (1978), pp. 588-615; Fernando Horcasitas, De Porfirio Diaz a Zapata (Mexico City 1974); Adolfo Gilly, La revolucion interrumpida, Mexico 191o-192o: una guerra campe- sina por la tierra y el poder (Mexico City 1971); Marte R. Gomez, Las comisiones agrarias del sur (Mexico City 1971).
The social and cultural milieu of Zapata's village is examined in Alicia Hernandez Chavez, Anenecuilco: memoria y vida de un pueblo (Mexico City 1991); Arturo Benavides, Ya venimos a contradecir: los campesinos de Morelos y el estado nacional (Mexico City 1976); Cheryl English Martin, Rural Society in Colonial Morelos (Albuquerque 1985); Guillermo de la Pena, A Legacy of Promises: Agriculture, Politics and Ritual in the Morelos Highlands of Mexico (Austin 1981) and Juan Salazar Perez, Cuadernos Morelenses (Morelos 1982). Geographical problems appear in Domingo Diaz, Bosque jo-geogrkfico de Morelos (Morelos 1967). Some pointers to the situation in Anenecuilco can be gleaned from Robert Redfield, Tepoztlan: A Mexican Village. A Study of Folk Life (Chicago 1973). The vice-regal land grants are the subject of Alicia Hernandez Chavez, Haciendas y pueblos en el estado de Morelos 1535-181o (Mexico City 1973). The role of Catholicism is dealt with in John M. Ingham, Mary, Michael and Lucifer: Folk Catholicism in Central Mexico (Austin 1986). The corrido is examined in Vicente T. Mendozo, El corrido de la revolucion mexicana (Mexico City 199o) and Armano de Maria y Campos, La revolucion mexicana a traves de los corridos populares, 2 vols (Mexico City 1962). The early influences on Zapata and his collaborators are traced in Juan Salazar Perez, Otilio Montano (Cuernavaca 1982) and Valentin Lopez Gonzalez, Los companeros de Zapata (Morelos 198o). A valuable eye-witness account is Rosa King, Tempest over Mexico (Boston 1935).
THE RISE OF VILLA
For Chihuahua in the nineteenth century see Francisco R. Almada, Resumen de la historia de Chihuahua (Mexico City 1955); O. L. Jones, Nueva Vizcaya: Heartland of the Spanish Frontier (Albuquerque 1988); Fernando Jordan, Cronica de un pais barbaro (Chihuahua 1975); F. C. & R. Lister, Chihuahua: Storehouse of Storms (Albuquerque 1966); Barry Carr, `Las peculiaridades del Norte Mexicano, 188o-1927: ensayo de interpretacion', Historia Mexicana 22 (1973), PP. 320-46; R. Saudels, `Antecedentes de la revolucion en Chihuahua', Historia Mexicana 24 (1975); Daniel Nugent, Spent Cartridges of Revolution: An Anthropological History of Namiquipa (Chicago 1993); Ana Maria Alonso, Thread of Blood: Colonialism, Revolution and Gender on Mexico's Northern Frontier (Tucson 1995).
For the Apache wars see Patricia N. Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York 1987); Max L. Moorehead, The Apache Frontier (Norman, Oklahoma 1968); Edward H. Spicer, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico and the United States on the Indians of the South-West, 1533-196o (Tucson 1962); Dan L. Thrapp, Victorio and the Mimbres Apaches (Norman, Oklahoma 1974); Angie Debo, Geronimo: The Man, His Time, His Place (Norman, Oklahoma 1976); Dan L. Thrapp, The Conquest of Apacheria (Norman, Oklahoma 1967); John C. Cremony, Life Among the Apaches 185o-1968 (Glorieta, New Mexico 1969); William B. Griffen, Apaches at War and Peace: The Janos Presidio, 1750-1858 (Albuquerque 1988). The Mormons are studied in F. Lamond Tullis, Mormons in Mexico: The Dynamics of Faith and Culture (Logan, Utah 1987) and Karl E. Young, Ordeal in Mexico: Tales of Danger and Hardship Collected from Mormon Colonists (Salt Lake City 1986).
The domination of the Creel-Terrazas clique has drawn the fire of many historians, and the following titles are indicative: Francisco R. Almada, Gobernadores del estado de Chihuahua (Chihuahua 1981) and 3uurez y Terrazas: Aclaraciones historicns (n.d.); Harold Sims, `Espejo de caciques: los Terrazas de Chihuahua', Historia Mexicana 18 (1968), pp. 379-99; Mark Wasserman, Capitalists, Caciques and Revolution: The Native Elite and Foreign Enterprise in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1854-1911 (Chapel Hill, North Carolina 1984). Some unconvincing attempts have been made to rehabilitate the Terrazas, as in Jose Fuentes Mares, Y Mexico se refugio en el desierto: Luis Terrazas, su historia y destino (Mexico City 1954) and Lulu Creel de Muller, El conquistador del desierto (Mexico City 1982). For the events at Tomochi consult Ruben Osorio Zuniga, Tomochi en llamas (Mexico City 1995); Lillian Illades Aguilar, La rebelion de Tomochic (Mexico City 1993); Paul J. Vanderwood, "'None But the Justice of God": Tomochic, 189 1-1892', in Jaime E. Rodriguez, Patterns of Contention in Mexican History (Wilmington, Delaware 1992), Pp. 227-41; Heriberto Frias, Tomochic (Mexico City 1983); Francisco Almada, La rebelion de Tomochic en Chihuahua (Chihuahua 1938); Jose Carlos Chavez, Peleando en Tomochic (Juarez 1955); Placido Chavez Calderon, La defensa de Tomochic (Mexico City 1964).
On Pancho Villa by far the best book is Friedrich Katz, The Life and Times of Pancho Villa (Stanford 1998), the product of a lifetime's research. Alongside this mountain most other Villa biographies are molehills, but they tend to illustrate Katz's division of the previous lives into hagiography and debunking. John Reed's classic Insurgent Mexico (1969) tends to promote the heroic version as do Manuel A. Machado, Centaur of the North: Francisco Villa, the Mexican Revolution and northern Mexico (1988); Elias Torres, Vida y hechos de Francisco Villa (Mexico City 1975); Federico Cervantes, Francisco Villa y la revolution (Mexico City 1960); Ramon Puente, `Francisco Villa', in Historia de la Revolution Mexicana (Mexico City 1936), pp. 239-70. The `black legend' of Villa appears in Celia Herrera, Francisco Villa: Ante la Historia (Mexico City 198,) and Rodrigo Alonso Cortes, Francisco Villa: el quinto jinete del apocalipsis (Mexico City 1972). A more nuanced and ambivalent approach is evident in Eugenio Toussant Aragon, I Quien y como fue Pancho Villa (Mexico City 1979), a psychobiography linking Villa's teetotalism and sexual excess with childhood trauma; Haldeen Braddy, The Paradox of Pancho Villa (El Paso 1978) and Enrique Beltran, `Fantasia y realidad de Pancho Villa', Historia Mexicana 16 (1966), pp. 71-84.
Fundamental to any research into Villa is Martin Luis Guzman, Memorias de Pancho Villa (Mexico City 1964). An English translation of this by Virginia H. Taylor has appeared as Memoirs of Pancho Villa (Austin 1966). Katz's monumental biography makes use of no less than three texts of the Guzman original, of which only one was published. Of the many accounts of Villa's early life (mostly apocryphal) to have appeared, the most curious is surely Percy N. Furber, I took Chances: From Windjammers to lets (Leicester 1954). More valuable is the memoir by Luis Aguirre Benavides, De Franciso I. Madero a Francisco Villa: Memorias de un revolucionario (Mexico City 1966).
Of the personalities Villa met before the Revolution broke out in 1910 the two most significant were Silvestre Terrazas and Abraham Gonzalez. Terrazas's reflections are contained in `El verdadero Pancho Villa', Boletin de la Soeiedad Chihuahuense de Estudios Historicos (Chihuahua) 6 No. to (September 1949), Pp. 290-95; 6 No. ii (October-November 1949), PP. 307-10; and 7 No. 6 (November 1950), PP. 453-55; also in Silvestre Terrazas, El Verdadero Pancho Villa (Mexico City 1985). For Abraham Gonzalez see William H. Beezley, Insurgent Governor: Abraham Gonzalez and the Mexican Revolution in Chihuahua (Lincoln 1973) and Francisco R. Almada, Vida, proceso y muerte de Abraham Gonzalez (Mexico City 1967). See also the Instituto Nacional de Estudios Historicos de la Revolucion Mexicana publication Abraham Gonzalez (1985); Joaquin Marquez Montiel, Hombres celebres de Chihuahua (Mexico City 1953); Francisco R. Almada, Gobernadores del estado de Chihuahua
(Mexico City 1951)•
THE RISE OF MADERO AND THE FALL OF DIAZ
The rebellion in the north is covered in Miguel Sanchez Lamego, Historia militar de la revolution en la epoca maderista, 2 vols (Mexico City 1977); Gene Z. Hanrahan, The Madero Revolution: The Origins of the Revolution in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico and California Iglo-ii (London 1976); Santiago Portilla, Una sociedad en armas: insurrection antireeleccionista en Mexico, Iglu-1911 (Mexico City 1995); Francisco R. Almada, La revolucion en el estado de Chihuahua, 2 vols (Mexico City 1965); Jose C. Valades, Historia general de la revolucion mexicana, 5 vols (Mexico City 1976); Alfonso Taracena, La verdadera revolucion Mexicana (igoi-ii) (Mexico City 1991); Manuel Gamiz Olivas, Historia de la Revolution en el estado de Durango (Mexico City 1973); Benjamin HerreraVargas, La revolucion en Chihuahua, Igio-7917 (Mexico City n.d.)
Local studies come into their own at this point. See particularly Mark Wasserman, Persistent Oligarchs: Elites and Politics in Chihuahua, Mexico, 1910-1940 (Durham, North Carolina 1993); Benjamin Thomas and Mark Wasserman, eds., Provinces of the Revolution: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1910-1929 (Albuquerque 199o); Benjamin Thomas and William McNellie, eds., Other Mexicos: Essays on Regional Mexican History, 1876-x911 (Albuquerque 1984); Oscar J. Martinez, Border Boom Town: Ciudad Juarez since 1848 (Austin 1978); William H. Beezley, `State Reform during the Provisionial Presidency: Chihuahua 1911', HAHR 50 (1970), PP. 524-37; Lowell L. Blaisdell, The Desert Revolution: Baja California, 1911 (Madison 1962).
