by Shana Priwer
92
Crazy like a fox
Leonardo was different. Very different! His ways of thinking and working were dissimilar from other people, both during the Renaissance and today. Since doctors love to study people who are different, a variety of twentieth-century mental health professionals have tried to diagnose Leonardo with various illnesses. The diagnoses range from more common ailments, such as dyslexia and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, to more exotic conditions, such as bipolar disorder (formerly known as manic-depressive disorder). Was Leonardo certifiably nuts?
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (or ADHD) is a relatively new diagnosis, but the fact that it has only recently been defined does not mean people throughout history haven't suffered from it. Classic signs of ADHD include being easily distracted, often failing to finish projects, and frequently shifting from one activity to another. However, you will also find these characteristics in many creative people, who often have a large range of interests and switch frequently from one to another.
Leonardo certainly fits the pattern of finishing little that he started. He left behind many incomplete paintings and other projects he never even started! Leonardo explained his apparent inability to finish things by stating his range of interests was so large and varied he simply had too much that he wished to do. Perhaps Leonardo's flitting from one project to another indicates symptoms of a disorder like ADHD, but was really just one more element of his brilliant, albeit unorthodox, mind.
Some people think writing from right to left was Leonardo's version of a code, to keep his notes from prying eyes, but it could also be a sign of a different trait: dyslexia. Dyslexia is a learning disorder that causes you to transpose the locations of letters within a word, or write individual letters backwards. It can also cause difficulties in reading; dyslexics can see words as a jumble of letters in a mixed-up order, rather than a particular pattern.
Many dyslexic people who are left-handed actually write in a backwards mirror writing similar to Leonardo's. Some dyslexic people who write like this do it entirely unconsciously. Leonardo's spelling was often strange and erratic. Another trait of dyslexia, it could also be another result of Leonardo's self-education.
People in general seem to favor one of two thinking modes: Either they are verbal or visual thinkers. Some preliminary research seems to suggest that those who are dyslexic often have enhanced visual-spatial thinking skills, which would go along with a particularly visual method of seeing the world, rather than a verbal one. Leonardo would seem to fit this pattern. His notebooks pioneered the method of technical drawing in which the pictures were actually the main point of the work; this technique stood in contrast to more traditional works, where sketches served only to illustrate the main text. Leonardo was certainly a particularly gifted visual thinker. Perhaps the seemingly disorganized verbal output of his notebooks, and his unorthodox method of writing, were just consequences of the way his brain worked.
A third modern diagnosis that has been applied to Leonardo is bipolar disorder. This psychological condition produces periods of manic behavior, during which the individual is full of ideas and enthusiasm and often works nonstop on various projects. These periods alternate with times of depression, where the individual seems unable to accomplish anything.
It is possible that this condition could explain some of Leonardo's behavior. Reports of his work habits indicate that he did go through long periods of not working, followed by times of obsessive work where he would toil on a project day and night. Observers particularly reported this behavior during Leonardo's creation of The Last Supper, when he would stay away from the site for days at a time, then arrive and work furiously on a tiny portion of the painting. Other times he would arrive, stare at the work for hours, then add a single brush stroke and leave again. This sort of behavior could certainly be a hallmark of a bipolar-type disorder, but then again it could also just be a typical artistic temperament!
Despite any modern psychological diagnosis that you might try to apply to Leonardo, it is clear that he was a supremely talented and productive individual. Perhaps we should think of him as an example of what can be done if you focus on your gifts, and not your shortcomings!
93
More than meets the eye
Wit plus intellect: What better combination to create an artistic web of mystery? Add that to Leonardo's passion for humor and secrecy and you've got the makings of code-riddled art full of hidden meanings. And what are the answers to Leonardo's puzzles, you ask? The riddles buried in his works range from object placement, to more outlandish claims of secret coded messages. The question is, how many of these codes are really there, and how many are the fictionalized inventions of overzealous art critics? You be the judge!
Leonardo seems to have loved puns, and many of his paintings include backgrounds or other elements that are puns on the name of the person being painted. One of his earliest known paintings, Ginevra de'Benci, is a portrait of a young woman, probably painted to celebrate her marriage. The woman is posed in front of a large juniper plant, which was a symbol of chastity. Yet Leonardo has sneakily included another reference here: The word for juniper in Italian is ginevra, so the plant in the painting is also a pun on the young lady's name.
Another of Leonardo's early paintings, Lady with the Ermine, contains a similar pun. The woman in the painting is thought to be Cecilia Gallerani, a mistress of Leonardo's patron at the time, Duke Sforza of Milan. The ermine that the young lady holds was a symbol of Sforza's court and appeared on his coat of arms. Thus it was a logical choice to appear in the painting. However, the addition of an ermine also has more subtle underpinnings that reveal Leonardo's sense of humor. An ermine, with its pure white coat, was considered a symbol of chastity, making the ermine an ironic choice to place with the duke's mistress. In addition, the Greek name for ermine isgalee, which makes the animal's inclusion another clever pun on the young lady's name.
In another instance, Leonardo designed a huge forest scene on the walls and ceiling of a room in Sforza's castle. It's thought his students painted this room, dubbed the Salla delle Asse (Tower Room), based on Leonardo's design. In addition to the various symbols of Sforza's family, including intertwining branches to symbolize his marriage, the inclusion of numerous willow trees is actually an allusion to Leonardo's hometown of Vinci, which has “willow” as one of its meanings.
As you can probably tell, symbolism was prevalent among Leonardo's works. Some objects, such as a carnation or a lamb, may seem random until you know the underlying religious significance. For instance, take Leonardo's early work Madonna of the Carnation, which shows Mary holding a carnation out for the infant Jesus: Since the carnation was actually a symbol of the Passion, its inclusion makes perfect sense. Another similar Madonna and child painting, Madonna with the Cat, shows the mother and child holding a cat. The inclusion of the cat comes from a story that a cat gave birth at the same moment Mary gave birth to Jesus.
Leonardo's most famous work, the Mona Lisa, is full of symbolism. The veil that the woman wears could symbolize widowhood. It could also symbolize chastity, which would have been appropriate for a married woman. The winding path shown in the background behind her could be the so-called path of virtue (from a myth about Hercules), and if so would indicate that Lisa was most likely a wife, not a mistress. It has also been suggested that the Mona Lisa is actually a self-portrait of Leonardo as a woman!
Leonardo's interest in codes and hidden messages has caused people to scrutinize his works, especially the Mona Lisa, for any sign of hidden meaning. For instance, Lisa's dress has a neckline with numerous small detailed loops, and these loops have been searched for any signs of hidden meaning, to no avail. Historians have also searched the sheet music held in Portrait of a Musician for hidden puzzles, but without success.
94
"R-e-s-p-e-c-t"
Socrates once said, “The way to gain a good reputation is to endeavor to be what you desire to appear.” Clearly, Leonardo en
deavored to be quite a lot during his lifetime, from artist to architect, and everything else in between. So how did he appear to his contemporaries, and were their feelings about him different from our view of him today?
Leonardo was a Renaissance celebrity. At the time, his popularity must have been like a modern-day rock star, actor, and best-selling novelist all rolled into one. How did Leonardo build up this reputation, and what kind of influence did he have on the generations to come? Was his genius enduring, like the Beatles, or fleeting, like the Monkees?
Leonardo was especially esteemed as a painter; even with his track record of seldom finishing paintings, he was sought after for commissions throughout his life. He was also held in a position of high esteem as an engineer, especially during his years with Duke Sforza and Cesare Borgia. In contrast, Leonardo's scientific pursuits seem to have been more solitary. Because his anatomical drawings required the dissection of cadavers, a practice forbidden during his time in Rome under the patronage of the pope, this work had something of an illicit nature that, combined with Leonardo's general secretiveness, likely made him even less inclined to share it with others.
Today, Leonardo is largely remembered and celebrated as a painter—his masterpiece Mona Lisa is one of the most recognized paintings in the world, gracing everything from postcards to mousepads. His other works aren't known as well, perhaps because many of them were unfinished or poorly preserved. Still, the handfuls of surviving paintings that remain today are sufficient to cement Leonardo's place as one of the most masterful artists of all time. The limited quantity of paintings, along with their mysterious, haunting nature, seems to increase both Leonardo's mystique and the desirability of his preserved works.
In large part because of Leonardo's secretive nature, few of his inventions or scientific discoveries have had much historical influence. Most of his inventions were never built; rather than sharing his plans and designs with others, Leonardo kept them to himself. There is evidence he planned to publish his notebooks at a later date, but this was yet another project that Leonardo never finished. Coupled with his notebooks' codelike mirror writing, which likely caused their value to go unrecognized after his heir Francesco Melzi's death, Leonardo's caution in sharing his discoveries led to the dispersion and loss of much of his work.
Leonardo could have rightfully taken his place as one of the fifteenth century's primary innovators, ushering in a new age of invention and innovation in the Renaissance. Instead, Leonardo stands in history as a man both ahead of his time and out of step with the world around him. It is astonishing to look at the creations in his notebooks, some of which were not reinvented for 500 years!
His notebooks contain many inventions that the techniques of the time were simply too crude to build, and others whose importance was just not recognized. His design for a bicycle, assuming that it wasn't merely a modern hoax, is eerily similar to modern bicycles, right down to details such as the chain assembly. Leonardo's invention of a multibarreled gun wasn't reinvented until modern times. His helicopter design was also remarkably innovative for the sixteenth century. In fact, a skydiver tested Leonardo's parachute in the year 2000 and found it worked perfectly. Unfortunately, in Leonardo's day, it just wasn't possible to get up high enough in the air to test it properly!
Due to his idiosyncrasies, as well as the progression of society at the time he was born, Leonardo truly stands as a man out of time. It's too bad that much of his work was not publicly available, since some of his inventions surely would have changed the course of history. It seems the Renaissance world just wasn't ready for many of his innovations.
95
Sincerest form of flattery
If Leonardo was truly such a genius, who wouldn't want to study with him? Lots of students seem to have tried, hoping that some of the great master's genius would rub off on them. Unfortunately, while Leonardo was certainly good at doing what he did, it's not clear that he was so good at actually explaining what he was doing. One of the downsides of genius is that it's hard to share.
At various points in his life, Leonardo had a studio or workshop full of students, assistants, and apprentices. Especially during his long stay in Milan, Leonardo appears to have had quite a number of students associated with his work. Most artists at the time had workshops full of students, and you can see the influence of the teacher in many of their works. Yet Leonardo's style proved more than just a new method to copy, and none of his students seems to have fully mastered his complete technique.
Many copies of Leonardo's works exist. This artistic plagiarism is actually fortunate because in some cases, as with Leda and the Swan and Madonna of the Yarnwinder, Leonardo's original has been lost over time. Other works by students in Leonardo's studio bear trademarks of Leonardo himself, and it is easy to imagine the master reviewing the unfinished paintings of his students. He may have even applied his own brush to a troublesome area in order to demonstrate a technique to his students.
One such painting, which is clearly not by Leonardo yet bears some traces of his style, is Portrait of a Young Woman. This painting, a stiff profile view, is utterly unlike the naturally posed three-quarters views Leonardo favored in his portraits. It was most likely painted by Leonardo's collaborator and student Ambrogio de Predis between 1495 and 1500. Yet some details of Leonardo's influence are visible in the young woman's elaborate headdress, as well as her pearls and elegantly tied ribbons Leonardo was particularly known for his skill in painting knots.
Leonardo's influence clearly helped de Predis; during his time in association with Leonardo he produced his two best works, the portrait mentioned above and a portrait called Bartolommeo Archinto. Unfortunately, after he left Leonardo's studio de Predis's talents seem to have sharply declined, and he produced little of interest for the rest of his career.
A similar story applies to many of Leonardo's other students. One of his more successful, Francesco Melzi, seems to have had a talent for copying Leonardo's paintings, but produced little of note on his own. Other students and imitators, such as Bernardini Luini, managed to portray the outer trappings of Leonardo's work in their own compositions, but their paintings seem flat and lifeless when compared with the subtle complexity of Leonardo's works.
Perhaps Leonardo's genius was too great, or his talent too far-reaching, for him to truly inspire and train artistic heirs. Many have tried to imitate Leonardo, with little to no success. The simple elements visible in his works—the enigmatic smile and the misty, fantastical backgrounds—are easy to replicate; however, the sense of depth and inner serenity of a work like the Mona Lisa is much more difficult to capture. Leonardo's paintings have an inner wisdom, as well as a darkness to them, which makes them more than just colors on a canvas. When you view them, they seem to come alive.
No records of Leonardo's methods or techniques as a teacher exist. It is possible to imagine that with his immense talents and natural abilities, he might have had difficulty explaining the basics. Concepts that were obvious to Leonardo were probably less intuitive to a group of talented (but not genius) apprentices. Though Leonardo tried, it doesn't appear that he was able to fully convey the nature of his work to his students. As a result, though Leonardo worked with many aspiring artists, he had no real artistic heirs. No one before or since has been able to produce the signature genius and mystery of a Leonardo original!
96
A horse of a different color
Imagine a twenty-six-foot-tall bronze horse and rider. If it would be spectacular today, imagine how amazing such a sculpture would have seemed 500 years ago! One of Leonardo's greatest disappointments could have been that his massive Statue of Francesco Sforza (see number 29) was never built. Leonardo's larger-than-life masterpiece from 1483 would have been the biggest equestrian statue on the continent.
Leonardo made many study sketches for this project and also made a large-scale clay model. Unfortunately, Leonardo's bronze was swiped by the military, who needed it to make silly things like cannons.
French soldiers ultimately destroyed the clay model in the early sixteenth century when they used it for target practice.
Now, fast-forward 500 years to an American airplane pilot named Charles Dent reading about the destruction of Leonardo's clay masterpiece in a 1977 National Geographic article. Creating this horse sculpture quickly became Dent's obsession; he felt it would honor both Leonardo da Vinci and all of Milan. He wanted to donate the sculpture to the people of Italy in celebration of Leonardo's achievements. Dent, an amateur sculptor, set to work creating his own scale model of the horse.
In order to fund his project, Dent created Leonardo da Vinci's Horse, Inc., a nonprofit group dedicated to raising funds to cast the enormous equestrian work. When he died in 1994, Dent bequeathed a large amount of money to this foundation. From that point on, the project took off at a rapid pace. The group gathered funds in later years by selling smaller-scaled reproductions of Leonardo's horse.
Eventually, a smaller model of the horse was sent to the Tallix Art Foundry for casting. Numerous problems surfaced, though, so the Foundry decided to start over. The master sculptor was a woman named Nina Akamu. She had been trained in Renaissance art and sculpture, and was keenly interested in seeing the project completed. She spent at least a year researching the project, then another year creating a new scale model. This model was then upsized at the Foundry to create the final bronze sculpture. Akamu and her team proceeded to build a fifteen-ton, twenty-six-foot bronze of Leonardo's design. The similarity to the original work was retained, and observers later commented that the strength, poise, and force of Leonardo's original red-chalk drawings were preserved in the Foundry's replica.
In deference to Dent's wishes, the magnificent sculpture was sent to Milan. The giant horse had to be split into seven pieces for safe travel and welded back together in Italy. It was unveiled there in September 1999, where a grand ceremony accompanied its unveiling to the public. Since Akamu's horse was actually cast twice, a second copy resides at the Frederik Meijer Botanical Gardens and Sculpture Park in Grand Rapids, Michigan. This version is known as the “American Horse.”
