9. Small and Vorgan, iBrain, 16–17.
10. Maryanne Wolf, interview with the author, March 28, 2008.
11. Steven Johnson, Everything Bad Is Good for You: How Today’s Popular Culture Is Actually Making Us Smarter (New York: Riverhead Books, 2005), 19.
12. John Sweller, Instructional Design in Technical Areas (Camberwell, Australia: Australian Council for Educational Research, 1999), 4.
13. Ibid., 7.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid., 11.
16. Ibid., 4–5. For a broad review of current thinking on the limits of working memory, see Nelson Cowan, Working Memory Capacity (New York: Psychology Press, 2005).
17. Klingberg, Overflowing Brain, 39 and 72–75.
18. Sweller, Instructional Design, 22.
19. George Landow and Paul Delany, “Hypertext, Hypermedia and Literary Studies: The State of the Art,” in Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality, ed. Randall Packer and Ken Jordan (New York: Norton, 2001), 206–16.
20. Jean-Francois Rouet and Jarmo J. Levonen, “Studying and Learning with Hypertext: Empirical Studies and Their Implications,” in Hypertext and Cognition, ed. Jean-Francois Rouet, Jarmo J. Levonen, Andrew Dillon, and Rand J. Spiro (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum, 1996), 16–20.
21. David S. Miall and Teresa Dobson, “Reading Hypertext and the Experience of Literature,” Journal of Digital Information, 2, no. 1 (August 13, 2001).
22. D. S. Niederhauser, R. E. Reynolds, D. J. Salmen, and P. Skolmoski, “The Influence of Cognitive Load on Learning from Hypertext,” Journal of Educational Computing Research, 23, no. 3 (2000): 237–55.
23. Erping Zhu, “Hypermedia Interface Design: The Effects of Number of Links and Granularity of Nodes,” Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 8, no. 3 (1999): 331–58.
24. Diana DeStefano and Jo-Anne LeFevre, “Cognitive Load in Hypertext Reading: A Review,” Computers in Human Behavior, 23, no. 3 (May 2007): 1616–41. The paper was originally published online on September 30, 2005.
25. Steven C. Rockwell and Loy A. Singleton, “The Effect of the Modality of Presentation of Streaming Multimedia on Information Acquisition,” Media Psychology, 9 (2007): 179–91.
26. Helene Hembrooke and Geri Gay, “The Laptop and the Lecture: The Effects of Multitasking in Learning Environments,” Journal of Computing in Higher Education, 15, no. 1 (September 2003): 46–64.
27. Lori Bergen, Tom Grimes, and Deborah Potter, “How Attention Partitions Itself during Simultaneous Message Presentations,” Human Communication Research, 31, no. 3 (July 2005): 311–36.
28. Sweller, Instructional Design, 137–47.
29. K. Renaud, J. Ramsay, and M. Hair, “‘You’ve Got Email!’ Shall I Deal with It Now?,” International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 21, no. 3 (2006): 313–32.
30. See, for example, J. Gregory Trafton and Christopher A. Monk, “Task Interruptions,” Reviews of Human Factors and Ergonomics, 3 (2008): 111–26. Researchers believe that frequent interruptions lead to cognitive overload and impair the formation of memories.
31. Maggie Jackson, Distracted: The Erosion of Attention and the Coming Dark Age (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2008), 79.
32. Karin Foerde, Barbara J. Knowlton, and Russell A. Poldrack, “Modulation of Competing Memory Systems by Distraction,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103, no. 31 (August 1, 2006): 11778–83; and “Multi-Tasking Adversely Affects Brain’s Learning,” University of California press release, July 7, 2005.
33. Christopher F. Chabris, “You Have Too Much Mail,” Wall Street Journal, December 15, 2008. The italics are Chabris’s.
34. Sav Shrestha and Kelsi Lenz, “Eye Gaze Patterns While Searching vs. Browsing a Website,” Usability News, 9, no. 1 (January 2007), www.surl. org/usabilitynews/91/eyegaze.asp.
35. Jakob Nielsen, “F-Shaped Pattern for Reading Web Content,” Alertbox, April 17, 2006, www.useit.com/alertbox/reading_pattern.html.
36. Jakob Nielsen, “How Little Do Users Read?,” Alertbox, May 6, 2008, www.useit.com/alertbox/percent-text-read.html.
37. Harald Weinreich, Hartmut Obendorf, Eelco Herder, and Matthias Mayer, “Not Quite the Average: An Empirical Study of Web Use,” ACM Transactions on the Web, 2, no. 1 (2008).
38. Jakob Nielsen, “How Users Read on the Web,” Alertbox, October 1, 1997, www.useit.com/alertbox/9710a.html.
39. “Puzzling Web Habits across the Globe,” ClickTale blog, July 31, 2008, www.clicktale.com/2008/07/31/puzzling-web-habits-across-the-globe-part-1/.
40. University College London, “Information Behaviour of the Researcher of the Future,” January 11, 2008, www.ucl.ac.uk/slais/research/ciber/down loads/ggexecutive.pdf.
41. Merzenich, “Going Googly.”
42. Ziming Liu, “Reading Behavior in the Digital Environment,” Journal of Documentation, 61, no. 6 (2005): 700–712.
43. Shawn Green and Daphne Bavelier, “Action Video Game Modifies Visual Selective Attention,” Nature, 423 (May 29, 2003): 534–37.
44. Elizabeth Sillence, Pam Briggs, Peter Richard Harris, and Lesley Fishwick, “How Do Patients Evaluate and Make Use of Online Health Information?,” Social Science and Medicine, 64, no. 9 (May 2007): 1853–62.
45. Klingberg, Overflowing Brain, 115–24.
46. Small and Vorgan, iBrain, 21.
47. Sam Anderson, “In Defense of Distraction,” New York, May 25, 2009.
48. Quoted in Don Tapscott, Grown Up Digital (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 108–9.
49. Quoted in Jackson, Distracted, 79–80.
50. Quoted in Sharon Begley and Janeen Interlandi, “The Dumbest Generation? Don’t Be Dumb,” Newsweek, June 2, 2008.
51. Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Letters from a Stoic (New York: Penguin Classics, 1969), 33.
52. Patricia M. Greenfield, “Technology and Informal Education: What Is Taught, What Is Learned,” Science, 323, no. 5910 (January 2, 2009): 69–71.
53. Eyal Ophir, Clifford Nass, and Anthony D. Wagner, “Cognitive Control in Media Multitaskers,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, August 24, 2009, www.pnas.org/content/ early/2009/08/21/ 0903620106.full.pdf. See also Adam Gorlick, “Media Multitaskers Pay Mental Price, Stanford Study Shows,” Stanford Report, August 24, 2009, http://news.stanford.edu/ news/2009/august24/ multitask-research-study-082409.html.
54. Michael Merzenich, interview with the author, September 11, 2009.
55. James Boswell, The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL. D. (London: Bell, 1889), 331–32.
a digression ON THE BUOYANCY OF IQ SCORES
1. Don Tapscott, Grown Up Digital (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2009), 291.
2. College Board, “PSAT/NMSQT Data & Reports,” http://professionals.col legeboard.com/data-reports-research/psat.
3. Naomi S. Baron, Always On: Language in an Online and Mobile World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008), 202.
4. David Schneider, “Smart as We Can Get?,” American Scientist, July–August 2006.
5. James R. Flynn, “Requiem for Nutrition as the Cause of IQ Gains: Raven’s Gains in Britain 1938–2008,” Economics and Human Biology, 7, no. 1 (March 2009): 18–27.
6. Some contemporary readers may find Flynn’s choice of words insensitive. He explains, “We are in a transitional period in which the term ‘mentally retarded’ is being replaced by the term ‘mentally disabled’ in the hope of finding words with a less negative connotation. I have retained the old term for clarity and because history has shown that negative connotations are simply passed on from one label to another.” James R. Flynn, What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 9–10.
7. Ibid., 9.
8. Ibid., 172–73.
9. “The World Is Getting Smarter,” Intelligent Life, December 2007. See also Matt Nipert, “Eureka!” New Zealand Listener, October 6–12, 2007.
10. Patricia M. Greenfield, “Technology and Informal Education: What Is Taught, What Is Learned,” Science, 323, no. 5910 (January 2, 2009): 69–
71.
11. Denise Gellene, “IQs Rise, but Are We Brighter?,” Los Angeles Times, October 27, 2007.
Eight THE CHURCH OF GOOGLE
1. For an account of Taylor’s life, see Robert Kanigel, One Best Way: Frederick Winslow Taylor and the Enigma of Efficiency (New York: Viking, 1997).
2. Frederick Winslow Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (New York: Harper, 1911), 25.
3. Ibid., 7.
4. Google Inc. Press Day Webcast, May 10, 2006, http://google.client.shareholder.com/ Visitors/event/build2/ MediaPresentation.cfm? MediaID=20263&Player=1.
5. Marissa Mayer, “Google I/O ’08 Keynote,” YouTube, June 5, 2008, www.youtube.com/watch?v=6x0cAzQ7PVs.
6. Bala Iyer and Thomas H. Davenport, “Reverse Engineering Google’s Innovation Machine,” Harvard Business Review, April 2008.
7. Anne Aula and Kerry Rodden, “Eye-Tracking Studies: More than Meets the Eye,” Official Google Blog, February 6, 2009, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/ 2009/02/eye- tracking-studies-more-than-meets.html.
8. Helen Walters, “Google’s Irene Au: On Design Challenges,” BusinessWeek, March 18, 2009.
9. Mayer, “Google I/O ’08 Keynote.”
10. Laura M. Holson, “Putting a Bolder Face on Google,” New York Times, February 28, 2009.
11. Neil Postman, Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology (New York: Vintage, 1993), 51.
12. Ken Auletta, Googled: The End of the World as We Know It (New York: Penguin, 2009), 22.
13. Google, “Company Overview,” undated, www.google.com/corporate.
14. Kevin J. Delaney and Brooks Barnes, “For Soaring Google, Next Act Won’t Be So Easy,” Wall Street Journal, June 30, 2005.
15. Google, “Technology Overview,” undated, www.google.com/corporate/tech.html.
16. Academy of Achievement, “Interview: Larry Page,” October 28, 2000, www.achievement.org/autodoc/page/pag0int-1.
17. John Battelle, The Search: How Google and Its Rivals Rewrote the Rules of Business and Transformed Our Culture (New York: Portfolio, 2005), 66–67.
18. Ibid.
19. See Google, “Google Milestones,” undated, www.google.com/corporate/history.html.
20. Sergey Brin and Lawrence Page, “The Anatomy of a Large-Scale Hypertextual Web Search Engine,” Computer Networks, 30 (April 1, 1998): 107–17.
21. Walters, “Google’s Irene Au.”
22. Mark Zuckerberg, “Improving Your Ability to Share and Connect,” Facebook blog, March 4, 2009, http://blog.facebook.com/ blog.php?post=57822962130.
23. Saul Hansell, “Google Keeps Tweaking Its Search Engine,” New York Times, June 3, 2007.
24. Brennon Slattery, “Google Caffeinates Its Search Engine,” PC World, August 11, 2009, www.pcworld.com/article/169989.
25. Nicholas Carlson, “Google Co-Founder Larry Page Has Twitter-Envy,” Silicon Alley Insider, May 19, 2009, www.businessinsider.com/google-cofounder-larry-page-has-twitter-envy-2009-5.
26. Kit Eaton, “Developers Start to Surf Google Wave, and Love It,” Fast Company, July 21, 2009, www.fastcompany.com/blog/ kit-eaton/technomix/ developers-start-surf-google-wave-and-love-it.
27. Doug Caverly, “New Report Slashes YouTube Loss Estimate by $300M,” WebProNews, June 17, 2009, www.webpronews.com/topnews/ 2009/06/17/new- report-slashes-youtube-loss-estimate-by-300m.
28. Richard MacManus, “Store 100%—Google’s Golden Copy,” ReadWriteWeb, March 5, 2006, www.readwriteweb.com/archives/ store_100_googl.php.
29. Jeffrey Toobin, “Google’s Moon Shot,” New Yorker, February 5, 2007.
30. Jen Grant, “Judging Book Search by Its Cover,” Official Google Blog, November 17, 2005, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2005/11/judging-book-search-by-its-cover.html.
31. See U.S. Patent no. 7,508,978.
32. Google, “History of Google Books,” undated, http://books.google.com/googlebooks/history.html.
33. Authors Guild, “Authors Guild Sues Google, Citing ‘Massive Copyright Infringement,’” press release, September 20, 2005.
34. Eric Schmidt, “Books of Revelation,” Wall Street Journal, October 18, 2005.
35. U.S. District Court, Southern District of New York, “Settlement Agreement: The Authors Guild, Inc., Association of American Publishers, Inc., et al., Plaintiffs, v. Google Inc., Defendant,” Case No. 05 CV 8136-JES, October 28, 2008.
36. American Library Association, “Library Association Comments on the Proposed Settlement,” filing with the U.S. District Court, Southern District of New York, Case No. 05 CV 8136-DC, May 4, 2009.
37. Robert Darnton, “Google and the Future of Books,” New York Review of Books, February 12, 2009.
38. Richard Koman, “Google, Books and the Nature of Evil,” ZDNet Government blog, April 30, 2009, http://government.zdnet.com/?p=4725.
39. In what may be a harbinger of the future, a prestigious Massachusetts prep school, Cushing Academy, announced in 2009 that it was removing all the books from its library and replacing them with desktop computers, flat-screen TVs, and a score of Kindles and other e-readers. The school’s headmaster, James Tracy, proclaimed the bookless library “a model for the 21st-century school.” David Abel, “Welcome to the Library. Say Goodbye to the Books,” Boston Globe, September 4, 2009.
40. Alexandra Alter, “The Next Age of Discovery,” Wall Street Journal, May 8, 2009.
41. Adam Mathes, “Collect, Share, and Discover Books,” Official Google Blog, September 6, 2007, http://googleblog.blogspot.com/2007/09/collect-share-and-discover-books.html.
42. Manas Tungare, “Share and Enjoy,” Inside Google Books blog, September 6, 2007, http://booksearch.blogspot.com/2007/08/share-and-enjoy.html.
43. Bill Schilit and Okan Kolak, “Dive into the Meme Pool with Google Book Search,” Inside Google Books blog, September 6, 2007, http://booksearch. blogspot.com/2007/09/dive-into-meme-pool-with-google-book.html; and Diego Puppin, “Explore a Book in 10 Seconds,” Inside Google Books blog, July 1, 2009, http://booksearch.blogspot.com/2009/06/explore-book-in-10-seconds.html.
44. Passages from Hawthorne’s notebooks are quoted in Julian Hawthorne, Nathaniel Hawthorne and His Wife: A Biography, vol. 1 (Boston: James R. Osgood, 1885), 498–503.
45. Leo Marx, The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 28–29.
46. Quoted in Will Durant and Ariel Durant, The Age of Reason Begins (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1961), 65.
47. Vannevar Bush, “As We May Think,” Atlantic Monthly, July 1945.
48. David M. Levy, “To Grow in Wisdom: Vannevar Bush, Information Overload, and the Life of Leisure,” Proceedings of the 5th ACM/IEEE-CS Joint Conference on Digital Libraries, 2005, 281–86.
49. Ibid.
50. Ralph Waldo Emerson, “Books,” Atlantic Monthly, January 1858.
51. Larry Page, keynote address before AAAS Annual Conference, San Francisco, February 16, 2007, http://news.cnet.com/1606-2_3-6160334.html.
52. Academy of Achievement, “Interview: Larry Page.”
53. Rachael Hanley, “From Googol to Google: Co-founder Returns,” Stanford Daily, February 12, 2003.
54. Academy of Achievement, “Interview: Larry Page.”
55. Steven Levy, “All Eyes on Google,” Newsweek, April 12, 2004.
56. Spencer Michaels, “The Search Engine That Could,” NewsHour with Jim Lehrer, November 29, 2002.
57. See Richard MacManus, “Full Text of Google Analyst Day Powerpoint Notes,” Web 2.0 Explorer blog, March 7, 2006, http://blogs.zdnet.com/web2explorer/?p=132.
58. Quoted in Jean-Pierre Dupuy, On the Origins of Cognitive Science: The Mechanization of the Mind (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2009), xiv.
59. George B. Dyson, Darwin among the Machines: The Evolution of Global Intelligence (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1997), 10.
60. George Dyson, “Turing’s Cathedral,” Edge, October 24, 2005, www.edge.org/3rd_culture/ dyson05/dyson_ 05index.html.
61. G
reg Jarboe, “A ‘Fireside Chat’ with Google’s Sergey Brin,” Search Engine Watch, October 16, 2003, http://searchenginewatch.com/3081081.
62. See Pamela McCorduck, Machines Who Think: A Personal Inquiry into the History and Prospects of Artificial Intelligence (Natick, MA: Peters, 2004), 111.
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