55 . Interview with Patrick Eddington, Centreville, Virginia, April 12, 1999.
56 . Eddington, Gassed in the Gulf, p. 151.
57 . U.S. Congress, Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, Special Report of the Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, United States Senate, January 4, 1995 to October 3, 1996 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1997), pp. 7–8. There was also some concern about the proposed merger from Defense Mapping Agency officials, who feared that their formal inclusion in the intelligence community might have a negative impact on the relationship with foreign nations who provide mapping information.
58 . NIMA, “National Imagery and Mapping Agency Established,” October 1, 1996.
59 . First “Announced NRO Payload,” Spaceflight 39, 3 (March 1997): 77. In 1995, the NRO and CIA had acknowledged the launch dates associated with the CORONA, ARGON, and LANYARD programs, the last of which was in May 1972.
60 . Vincent Kiernan, “Titan 4 Launches Spy Satellite from Vandenberg AFB,” Space News, December 7–13, 1992, p. 26; Craig Covault, “Advanced KH-11 Broadens U.S. Recon Capability,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, January 6, 1997, pp. 24–25; Craig Covault, “New Intelligence Ops Debut in Iraqi Strikes,” Aviation Week and Space Technology, December 21–28, 1998, pp. 124–125; William Harwood, “Titan Boosts Military Payload for Ninth Consecutive Success,” Space News, December 11–17, 1995, p. 26; private information.
61 . Interview with Bernard Lubarsky, Alexandria, Virginia, May 16, 2000; private information.
62 . Barbara Crosette, “U.S. Seeks to Prove Mass Killings,” New York Times, August 11, 1995, p. A3; Bill Gertz, “New Chinese Missiles Target All of East Asia,” Washington Times, July 10, 1997, pp. A1, A16; Tim Weiner, “U.S. Suspects India Prepares for Nuclear Test,” New York Times, December 15, 1995, p. A6; Elaine Sciolino, “U.S. Says It’s Won Votes to Maintain Sanctions on Iraq,” New York Times, March 5, 1995, pp. 1, 9; Bill Gertz, “Libyans Stop Work on Chemical Plant,” Washington Times, June 24, 1996, p. A4; Joseph S. Bermudez Jr., “North Korea Set for More Ballistic Missile Tests,” Jane’s Defence Weekly, October 23, 1996, p. 5.
63 . CIA Office of Public Affairs, “Hypertext Systems,” n.d.
64 . CIA, Office of Public Affairs, “Information Retrieval,” n.d.
65 . CIA, Office of Public Affairs, “Image Perspective Transformation Modeling and Visualization,” n.d. circa 1996.
66 . CIA Public Affairs, “Dual-Use Technology Projects: Law Enforcement and the Environment,” 1996.
67 . Ibid.; “Once-Secret Technology Assists Cancer Detection,” Signal, June 1995, pp. 66–67; CIA, Public Affairs, “Facial Recognition Program,” n.d.
68 . Interview with Gene Poteat, McLean, Virginia, April 25, 2000; Philip Eckman, “Some Random Thoughts and Musings on ORD,” n.d. Previously, according to former ORD director Philip Eck-man, OD&E competed with ORD for funds and also was the agency’s executive authority for decisions on funding reconnaissance projects, making it both “judge and jury.” According to Eckman, that had been a sore point for many years, “since it was generally acknowledged that ORD had the lion’s share of innovative proposals each year, yet never received more than about 20% of the funds.” (Philip Eckman, “Some Random Thoughts and Musings on ORD,” n.d.)
69 . David interview.
70 . McMahon interview; Poteat interview.
71 . Hineman interview.
72 . Hirsch interview.
73 . David interview.
Chapter 11: Uncertain Future
1 . CIA, “CIA’s Deputy Director for Science and Technology to Become CEO of Public Service Research Institute,” June 22, 1998; “History,” www.anser.org/aboutanser/history.html.
2 . CIA, “CIA’s Deputy Director for Science and Technology to Become CEO of Public Service Research Institute.”
3 . Interview with Robert Singel, Great Falls, Virginia, February 25, 1999.
4 . Interview with Philip Eckman, Alexandria, Virginia, May 16, 2000.
5 . “Joanne Isham,” www.odci.gov/cia, 1998; CIA Public Affairs, “DCI Tenet Announces Appointment of Deputy Directors for Science and Technology,” January 12, 2000; CIA Public Affairs, “Joanne O. Isham, Deputy Director for Science and Technology,” January 13, 2000.
6 . Vernon Loeb, “Inside Information,” www.washingtonpost.com, January 10, 2000; interview with R. Evans Hineman, Chantilly, Virginia, February 17, 1999.
7 . CIA, “Director of Central Intelligence Appoints Dr. Gary L. Smith, Deputy Director for Science and Technology,” March 24, 1999.
8 . “Profile of APL,” www.jhuapl.edu/profile/profile.htm; “MSX Satellite Passes Rocket Tracking Test,” Space News, April 24–30, 1997, p. 10.
9 . CIA, “Director of Central Intelligence Appoints Dr. Gary L. Smith, Deputy Director for Science and Technology.”
10 . Ibid.
11 . CIA Public Affairs, “DCI Tenet Announces Appointment of Deputy Director for Science and Technology,” January 12, 2000.
12 . Vernon Loeb, “CIA Science Chief Quits; Deputy Named,” Washington Post, January 14, 2000, p. A25; private information.
13 . CIA Public Affairs, “DCI Tenet Announces Appointment of Deputy Director for Science and Technology.”
14 . Telephone conversation with CIA spokesman, January 21, 2000.
15 . Loeb, “CIA Science Chief Quits; Deputy Named”; telephone interview with Gordon Oehler, October 5, 2000.
16 . CIA Public Affairs, “James L. Runyan, Associate Deputy Director for Science and Technology,” January 2000.
17 . Private information.
18 . Letter, Joanne O. Isham to Albert Wheelon, October 13, 2000.
19 . CIA, “DS&T Realignment Overview,” n.d.
20 . Ibid.; CIA, “DS&T Response to Author’s Questions,” February 9, 2001.
21 . Tabassum Zakaria, “CIA Using ‘Data Mining’ Technology to Find Nuggets,” Reuters, March 2, 2001.
22 . Ibid.
23 . Gary H. Anthes, “Cloak & Dagger IT,” www.computerworld.com, accessed February 6, 2001; Rick E. Yannuzzi, “In-Q-Tel: A New Partnership Between the CIA and the Private Sector,” Defense Intelligence Journal 9, 1 (Winter 2000).
24 . Anthes, “Cloak & Dagger IT.”
25 . Ibid.
26 . Neil King Jr., “Small Start-Up Helps the CIA to Mask Its Moves on the Web,” Wall Street Journal, February 12, 2001, pp. B1, Bb.
27 . Ibid.
28 . CIA, “DS&T Response to Author’s Questions”; private information.
29 . CIA, “DS&T Realignment Overview.”
30 . Ibid.
31 . Basil H. Scott, “A 21st Century CIA—Meeting Challenges, Realizing Opportunities,” April 4, 1999, www.odci.gov/dst.
32 . Telephone interview with Robert Kohler, July 6, 1999.
33 . Gordon Oehler, “Warning and Detection,” in Sidney D. Drell, Abraham D. Sofaer, and George D. Wilson, The New Terror: Facing the Threat of Biological and Chemical Weapons (Stanford, Calif.: Hoover Institution Press, 1999), pp. 138–151 at p. 143.
34 . Telephone interview with Robert Kohler, February 1, 2001.
SOURCES
Interviews (Dates without locations indicate a telephone interview)
Lew Allen: Pasadena, California, June 10, 1999.
Paul Bacalis: December 1, 1999.
Richard Bissell: Farmington, Connecticut, January 6, 1984; Farmington, Connecticut, March 16, 1984.
Dino Brugioni: May 21, 1996.
Roy Burks: North Potomac, Maryland, May 10, 1999.
Frank Buzard: Rancho Palos Verdes, California, June 11, 1999.
Joseph Charyk: June 1, 1999.
Ruth David: Arlington, Virginia, February 22, 1999.
Philip Eckman: Alexandria, Virginia, May 16, 2000.
Patrick Eddington: Centreville, Virginia, April 12, 1999.
Edward Giller: June 29, 1999.
R. Evans Hineman: Chantilly, Virginia, February 17, 1999.
James V. Hirsch: Fairfax, Virginia, February 12,
1999.
R. M. Huffstutler: Falls Church, Virginia, March 23, 1999.
Robert Kohler: July 6, 1999; February 1, 2001.
Steven Koonin: Pasadena, California, March 22, 2000.
Jack C. Ledford: Arlington, Virginia, October 7, 1999.
Walter Levison: September 17, 1999.
Henry S. Lowenhaupt: Springfield, Virginia, April 15, 1999.
Bernard Lubarsky: Alexandria, Virginia, May 9, 2000.
Arthur Lundahl: October 19, 1988; July 27, 1989.
Frank Madden: November 3, 2000.
Victor Marchetti: October 12, 1999.
John Martin: September 7, 1996.
John McMahon: Los Altos, California, November 17, 1998.
Brockway McMillan: September 15, 1999.
William H. Nance: Bethesda, Maryland, May 4, 1999.
Gordon Oehler: October 5, 2000.
Robert Phillips: Rosslyn, Virginia, June 4, 1999.
Henry Plaster: Vienna, Virginia, September 30, 1999.
Gene Poteat: McLean, Virginia, April 25, 2000.
Edward Proctor: March 10, 1999.
Robert Singel: Great Falls, Virginia, February 25, 1999.
Sayre Stevens: May 29, 1996; Springfield, Virginia, March 18, 1999.
Thomas Twetten: March 12, 2001.
Karl Weber: Oakton, Virginia, May 5, 1999.
Albert Wheelon: April 2, 1997; Washington, D.C., April 9, 1997; May 19, 1997; Montecito, California, May 11–12, 1998; November 29, 1998; Montecito, June 14, 1999; Montecito, March 21, 2000.
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Allen Welsh Dulles as Director of Central Intelligence, 26 February 1953–29 November 1961, Volume II, Coordination of Central Intelligence. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1973.
Armstrong, Willis, William Leonhart, William J. McCaffrey, and Herbert C. Rothenberg. “The Hazards of Single-Outcome Forecasting.” Studies in Intelligence 28, 3 (Fall 1984): 57–70.
Bernard, Richard L. “The Defense Special Missile and Astronautics Center.” Cryptologic Spectrum, Fall 1983, pp. 30–33.
Brandwein, David S. “Telemetry Analysis.” Studies in Intelligence 8, 4 (Fall 1964): 21–29.
______. “The SS-8 Controversy.” Studies in Intelligence 13, 3 (Summer 1969): 27–35.
Brown, Donald C. “On the Trail of Hen House and Hen Roost.” Studies in Intelligence 13, 2 (Spring 1969): 11–19.
Burke, James. “Seven Years to Luna 9.” Studies in Intelligence 10, 3 (Summer 1966): 1–24.
Bush, George. National Security Directive 45. “U.S. Policy in Response to the Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait,” August 20, 1990.
______. National Security Directive 54. “Responding to Iraqi Aggression in the Gulf,” January 15, 1991.
Carey, Warren F., and Myles Maxfield. “Intelligence Implications of Disease.” Studies in Intelligence 16, 1 (Spring 1972): 71–78.
Center for the Study of Intelligence. Declassified National Intelligence Estimates of the Soviet Union and International Communism. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1996.
Central Imagery Office. Briefing Slides, 1992.
Central Intelligence Agency. The French Nuclear Energy Weapons Program, November 13, 1959.
______. “Future of the Agency’s U-2 Capability,” July 7, 1960.
______. Cost Reduction Program FY 1966–FY 1967, September 1, 1965, NARA/CP, TRB, RG 263, Entry 36, HRP 89-2/00443, Box 7, File 713.
______. “Biographic Profile, Albert Dewell Wheelon,” May 10, 1966, NARA, MRB, RG 263.
______. Burial at Sea, September 4, 1974. Videotape.
______. Iran in the 1980s, August 1977.
______. R. V. Jones Intelligence Award Ceremony Honoring Dr. Albert Wheelon, December 13, 1994. ______. DS&T 35th Anniversary: Celebrating 50 Years of CIA History, July 24, 1997. Videotape.
Central Intelligence Agency and National Reconnaissance Office. “CORONA Pioneers,” May 25, 1995.
Central Intelligence Agency, Photographic Interpretation Center. Joint Mission Coverage Index, Mission 9009, 18 August 1960, September 1960. In Kevin C. Ruffner (ed.), CORONA: America’s First Satellite Program. Washington, D.C.: Central Intelligence Agency, 1995.
Charyk, Joseph. “A Summary Review of the National Reconnaissance Office,” February 25, 1963.
China Task Force, Central Intelligence Agency. “The Production Effort,” July 1965–June 1967, NARA, RG 263, CIA HRP 89-2, NN3-263-94-010, Box 9, File HS/HC 735, Folder 2.
“CIA Raising USSR Sub Raises Questions.” FBIS-SOV-92-145, July 28, 1992, pp. 15–16.
Clesh, Mark. “Dedication of New Operations Center for DEFSMAC,” Communiqué, March/April 1998, pp. 42–43.
David, Ruth. Speech to Armed Forces Communications Electronics Association, January 1998.
Davies, Merton, and William R. Harris. RAND’s Role in the Evolution of Balloon and Satellite Observation Systems and Related U.S. Space Technology. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND, 1988.
“DCI Plans a National Imagery Agency.” Communiqué, August 1995, pp. 1, 8.
DCI Task Force on the National Reconnaissance Office. Report to the Director of Central Intelligence, DCI Task Force on the National Reconnaissance Office, Final Report, April 1992.
Dean, L. E., C. R. Johnson, and H. J. Strasler. “Teal Amber I.” Journal of Defense Research, Special Issue 78-3, 1978, pp. 151–170.
“Debriefing of Francis Gary Powers, Tape #2.” February 13, 1962, NARA, RG 263, 1998 CIA release, Box 230, Folder 3.
Department of Defense. DOD Directive S-5100.43, “Defense Special Missile and Astronautics Center (Defense/SMAC),” April 27, 1964.
______. Conduct of the Persian Gulf War, Final Report to Congress. Washington, D.C.: Department of Defense, April 1992.
______. DOD Directive 5105.26, “Central Imagery Office,” May 6, 1992.
Department of State. “Transcript of Daily Press Briefing, Tuesday, September 29, 1964.”
Deutch, John. Statement before Senate Select Committee on Intelligence, April 26, 1995.
Director of Central Intelligence. NIE 11-6-54, Soviet Capabilities and Probable Programs in the Guided Missile Field, October 1954.
______. NIE 11-4-57, Main Trends in Soviet Capabilities and Policies, 1957–1962, November 12, 1957.
______. NIE 11-4-59, Main Trends in Soviet Capabilities and Policies, 1959–1964, February 9, 1960.
______. NIE 11-4-60, Main Trends in Soviet Capabilities and Policies, 1956–1965, December 1, 1960.
______. NIE 11-8-61, Soviet Capabilities for Long Range Attack, June 7, 1961.
______. NIE 11-8/1-61, Soviet Capabilities for Long Range Attack, September 21, 1961.
______. SNIE 13-2-63, Communist China’s Advanced Weapons Program, July 24, 1963.
______. NIE 11-8-63, Soviet Capabilities for Strategic Attack, October 18, 1963.
______. NIE 11-2-64, The Soviet Atomic Energy Program, July 16, 1964.
______. SNIE 13-4-64. The Chances of an Imminent Communist Chinese Nuclear Explosion, August 26, 1964.
______. NIE 11-8-64, Soviet Capabilities for Strategic Attack, October 8, 1964.
______. NIE 11-1-65. The Soviet Space Program, 1965.
______. NIE 11-2A-65, The Soviet Atomic Energy Program, May 19, 1965.
______. NIE 11-1-67, The Soviet Space Program, March 2, 1967.
______. NIE 11-8-67, Soviet Capabilities for Strategic Attack, October 26, 1967.
______. NIE 11-3-67, Soviet Strategic Air and Missile Defenses, November 9, 1967.
______. NIE 11-8-70, Soviet Forces for Intercontinental Attack, November 24, 1970.
______.
NIE 11-8-71, Soviet Forces for Intercontinental Attack, October 21, 1971.
______. NIE 11-8-72, Soviet Forces for Intercontinental Attack, October 26, 1972.
______. DCID 3/3, “Scientific Intelligence,” October 28, 1949.
______. DCID 3/4, “Production of Scientific and Technical Intelligence,” August 14, 1952.
______. DCID 3/5, “Production of Scientific and Technical Intelligence,” February 3, 1959.
______. DCID 2/9, “Management of National Imagery Intelligence,” June 1, 1992.
Directorate of Collection, Office, ACS/Intelligence, Air Force. History: Directorate of Collection, Office, ACS/Intelligence 1 July–31 December 1962, n.d.
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Earman, J. S., Inspector General, CIA. Report on Plots to Assassinate Fidel Castro. Washington, D.C.: CIA, 1967.
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Gates, Robert M. Statement on Change in CIA and the Intelligence Community, April 1, 1992.
Geiger, Rear Adm. Robert, and D. Barry Kelly. NRO Restructure Study, Final Report, Volume II. Washington, D.C.: NRO, 1989.
Gerson, N. C. “SIGINT in Space.” Studies in Intelligence 28, 2 (Summer 1984): 41–48.
GRAB: Galactic Radiation and Background. Washington, D.C.: Naval Research Laboratory, 1997.
Grant, Sam, and Peter C. Oleson. “Breast Cancer Detection Research.” Studies in Intelligence, Semiannual Unclassified Edition No. 1, 1997, pp. 27–34.
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