by Neil Hanson
Wernham, Richard Bruce, The Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589, Navy Records Society, 127, 1988
Wernham, Richard Bruce, The Making of Elizabethan Foreign Policy, 1558–1603, Berkeley, 1980
Wernham, Richard Bruce, “Queen Elizabeth and the Portugal Expedition of 1589,” English Historical Review, LXVI, 1951
Wernham, Richard Bruce (ed.), The Counter-Reformation and Price Revolution 1559–1610, New Cambridge Modern History, 3, Cambridge University Press, 1968
Whitaker, Thomas Dunham, The History and Antiquities of the Deanery of Craven, Leeds, 1878
White, Henry, The Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1868
Whitehead, Bertrand T., Brags and Boasts: Propaganda in the Year of the Armada, Sutton, Stroud, 1994
Whiting, John Roger Scott, The Enterprise of England: The Spanish Armada, Sutton, Stroud, 1995
Wilford, Sir Thomas, A Military Discourse, 1734
Williams, Neville, All the Queen’s Men: Elizabeth I and Her Courtiers, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972
Williams, Neville, Contraband Cargoes: Seven Centuries of Smuggling, Longmans, 1959
Williams, Neville, Francis Drake, 1973
Williams, Neville, The Life and Times of Elizabeth the First, Cardinal, 1975
Williams, Neville, The Sea Dogs: Privateers, Plunder and Piracy in the Elizabethan Age, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1975
Williams, Penry, Life in Tudor England, English Life Series, Putnam, New York, 1964
Williams, Sir Roger, The Art of Warre, date unknown
Williamson, James A., The Age of Drake, 1970
Williamson, James A., The English Channel: A History, World, Cleveland, 1959
Williamson, James A., Hawkins of Plymouth: A New History of Sir John Hawkins and of the Other Members of his Family Prominent in Tudor England, 1969
Williamson, James A. The Tudor Age, A History of England, vol. 5, McKay, New York, 1964
Wilson, C., Queen Elizabeth and the Revolt of the Netherlands, 1970
Wilson, Derek, The World Encompassed: Drake’s Great Voyages 1577–1580, Hamish Hamilton, 1977
Wilson, Derek A., A Tudor Tapestry: Men, Women and Society in Reformation England, University of Pittsburgh, 1972
Wilson, Thomas, The State of England A.D. 1600, Camden Society, 3rd series, vol. 52
Wingfield, Anthony, A True Coppie of a Discourse written by a Gentleman Employed in the Late Voyage of Spaine and Portingale . . . , 1589
Wood, Walter, Survivors’ Tales of Famous Shipwrecks, Geoffrey Bles, 1932
Woodall, John, The Surgions Mate, 1617; facsimile with an introduction and appendix by John Kirkup, Kingsmead Press, Bath, 1978
Woodrooffe, Thomas, The Enterprise of England, 1958
Worth, R. N., Calendar of the Plymouth Municipal Records, Plymouth, 1893
Wright, Irene A. (ed.), Documents Concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, Hakluyt Society Series II, LXXI, 1932
Wright, Irene A. (ed.), Further English Voyages to Spanish America 1583–1594, Hakluyt Society Series II, XCIX, 1951
Wright, W.H.K., The Spanish Armada, 1887
Wurtemberg, Frederick, Duke of, “The Journal of Frederick, Duke of Wurtemberg, 1592,” in William Rye (ed.), England as Seen by Foreigners, 1865
Wynkfielde, Robert, “The Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots,” in H. Ellis (ed.), Original Letters Illustrative of English History, 1827
Youengs, Joyce, “Bowmen, Billmen and Hackbutters: The Elizabethan Militia in the South West,” in Security and Defence in the South-West of England before 1800, Exeter Studies in History, 19, University of Exeter Press, 1987
Youengs, Joyce, “Ralegh’s Country and the Sea,” Proceedings of the British Academy, 75, 1989
Youengs, Joyce, Ralegh’s Country: The South-West of England in the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, Raleigh, North Carolina, 1986
Youengs, Joyce, Sixteenth Century England, Pelican Social History of Britain, Allen Lane, 1984
Yturriaga, Jose Antonio de, “Attitudes in Ireland towards the Survivors of the Spanish Armada,” Irish Sword, 17, Summer 1990
TELEVISION PROGRAMMES
Ereira, Alan, Armada, BBC, 1988
Wilson, David, “Armada,” Secret History, Channel Four, 2001
Glossary
ARQUEBUS: matchlock weapon of variable barrel length, bore and weight
BEAR ROOM: pull away
CABLE: thick rope attached to the anchor
CALIVER: standardized version of the arquebus with a consistent bore and barrel length
CANNON: heavy gun delivering a large projectile over short ranges
CARAVEL: lighter and more manoeuvrable three-masted version of the carrack
CAREEN: scrape the hull of a ship to remove weed, barnacles, etc. Also came to mean sailing at a list, from the angle which ships assumed when beached for careening
CARRACK: Mediterranean merchant ship readily converted to a warship. Often with three decks, deep holds and high fore- and sterncastles
CULVERIN: longer-range version of the cannon
DOWNS: sea area between the East Kent coast and the Goodwin Sands
DUCAT: Spanish gold coin weighing approximately one-eighth of an ounce
EMBARGO: impound, seize
FATHOM: measurement of depth, six feet
FLOTA: Spanish treasure fleet from the New World
FLYBOAT: light, shallow-draught vessel, capable of operating in water too shallow for conventional warships
GALLEASS: ship fitted with oars and sails in an attempt to combine the speed of a galley with the seaworthiness and firepower of a galleon
GALLEON: large ocean-going fighting ship of two or more decks with gun batteries in broadsides. Spanish galleons had fighting castles fore and aft; English ships were sleeker and lower.
GALLEY: oared warship with banks of oars five metres long, weighing 300 kilograms and each powered by five men. In combat they could achieve speeds of four knots, rowing at 22 to 26 strokes per minute.
GREAT SHIP: armed merchantman, usually over 300 tons. The great ships of the Levant Company were heavily armed to fight off corsairs.
HULK: either a sailing ship stripped of its masts and rigging and used as a store, hospital, prison, guardship, barracks, etc. or a northern European sailing ship used in the Baltic trade. Lacking a keel, the flat-bottomed hulks were capacious, but slow and clumsy.
LAST: measure of gunpowder, approximately equal to 2,400 pounds weight
MORION: visorless helmet
MUSKET: long-barrelled weapon firing a shot capable of penetrating personal armour, and fired using a wooden rest to support the barrel
PAPER ROYAL: strong paper used in cartridges
PINNACE: smaller, faster version of a galleon, used mainly for scouting, communications and shallow-water fighting
PRESS GANG: group carrying out forced recruitment of seamen
PRIVATEER: state-sponsored pirate
RUMMAGE: clean the gravel ballast in the bilges
RUTTER: route map used by navigators, showing headlands and other prominent features
SCONCE: fortress
SPRING TIDE: high tide produced when the sun and moon are directly aligned with the earth, combining their gravitational pulls
WARP: pull clear of harbour into a contrary wind by hauling in anchor cables or ropes at fixed points along the shore
WEATHER GAUGE, HAVING THE: being to windward
ZABRA: fast pinnace
Notes
ABBREVIATIONS OF SOURCES CITED
CSPD Calendar of State Papers, Domestic
CSPF Calendar of State Papers, Foreign
CSPI Calendar of State Papers, Irish
CSPS Calendar of State Papers, Spanish
CSPV Calendar of State Papers, Venetian
PRO SP Public Record Office (now The National Archives), Special Papers
SPD State Papers, Domestic
CHAPTER ONE:
God’s Obvious Design
M. M. Maxwell-Scott, The Tragedy of Fotheringay, appendices; Yelverton MSS.
Luis de Gongora, “Herman Perico,” in Obras Completas.
Alison Weir, The Life of Elizabeth I, p. 32; Sir Robert Naunton, Fragmenta Regalia; H. R. Fox Bourne, English Seamen under the Tudors, vol. 2, p. 152.
Cecil to Walsingham, CSPD; Conyers Read, Lord Burghley, p. 87.
Sir Francis Englefield to the Queen of Scots, 9 October 1584, Lansdowne MS 96.12; Neville Williams, All the Queen’s Men, p. 198; David Cressy, “Binding the Nation,” pp. 217–34.
Folger Shakespeare Library, MS V.b.142, f. 26.
Cecil to Walsingham, CSPD.
Weir, op. cit., pp. 129, 195; Winston Graham, The Spanish Armadas, p. 55.
Ronald H. Fritze (ed.), Historical Dictionary of Tudor England, p. 43; Robert Dudley, Correspondence, p. 342.
PRO SP 12/194/30; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 7 February 1587, CSPS iv 15; Sir John E. Neale, Elizabeth and Her Parliaments, vol. 2, p. 129.
Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 28 February 1587, CSPS iv 28; Neale, op. cit., p. 137; Read, op. cit., pp. 366–70.
Maxwell-Scott, op. cit., p. 239; Ashmole MS 830, f. 13.
Report to Lord Burghley, endorsed in his hand, 8 Feb. 1586 (o.s.). Printed in Sir Henry Ellis, Original Letters, Second Series; Chantelauze, quoted in Maxwell-Scott, op. cit.
William Camden, History, vol. 2, p. 454; Report to Lord Burghley, 8 Feb. 1586 (o.s.), op. cit.
Report to Lord Burghley, 8 Feb. 1586 (o.s.), op. cit.
Ashmole MS 830, f. 13; Maxwell-Scott, op. cit., p. 236; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 28 February 1587, CSPS iv 28.
Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 7 March 1587, CSPS iv 35; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 28 March 1587, CSPS iv 48.
Neale, op. cit., pp. 139–49; Thomas Fuller, Worthies, ii, p. 174.
“Advices from London,” 12 February 1587, CSPS iv 18; James VI to Elizabeth I, 26 January 1588, in Anthony Bacon, Memoirs of the Reign of Elizabeth, vol. 2, p. 52; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 7 February 1587, CSPS iv 15; Letter written from England to a Councillor of the King of Scotland, 4 March 1587, CSPS iv 31; James VI to Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, quoted in Fritze (ed.), op. cit., p. 50.
The King to Bernardino de Mendoza, 31 March 1587, CSPS iv 57; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 6 March 1587, CSPS iv 32; Bernardino de Mendoza to Secretary Idiaquez, 18 February 1587, CSPS iv 24.
David A. Thomas, The Illustrated Armada Handbook, p. 9; Garrett Mattingly, The Defeat of the Spanish Armada, p. 47.
CHAPTER TWO:
In the Cause of God
David Howarth, The Voyage of the Armada, p. 33; Winston Graham, The Spanish Armadas, p. 26.
Bertrand T. Whitehead, Brags and Boasts, p. 3; Maura, El Designio de Felipe II; John C. Rule and John J. TePaske, The Character of Philip II.
J. M. Estal, “Felipe II y su Archivo hagiographico de El Escorial,” pp. 207–9; Michael Apps, The Four Ark Royals, p. 26.
N.A.M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, p. 255.
Graham, op. cit., p. 23; Colin Martin and Geoffrey Parker, The Spanish Armada, pp. 258, 85; Spanish Advices, SPD cciii 33.
Painting by Sofonisba Anguisciola, c. 1579; Ronald Pollitt, “John Hawkins’ Troublesome Voyages,” pp. 26–40.
David B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan, England’s Sea Empire; George D. Ramsay, English Overseas Trade during the Centuries of Emergence; George D. Ramsay, The Smugglers’ Trade, pp. 131–57; Henry Kamen, Spain’s Road to Empire; Kenneth R. Andrews, “Elizabethan Privateering,” p. 11.
Alison Weir, The Life of Elizabeth I, pp. 59, 167; E. Kouri, “England and the Attempts to Form a Protestant Alliance in the late 1560s,” p. 3.
SPD Elizabeth, xlviii 60; Michael Oppenheim, The Maritime History of Devon, p. 45; Duro, La Armada Invencible, I, p. 241; Martin and Parker, op. cit., p. 63.
Calvar Gross, La Batalla del Mar Oceano, vol. I, pp. 57–64; Thomas Cely to Lord Burghley, 12 December 1579, SP Add. xxxvi. 35; Alfred O’Rahilly, “The Massacre at Smerwick.”
A. L. Watson, “Attitudes in Spain towards Philip II’s Imperialism,” p. 16; John Knox Laughton (ed.), State Papers Relating to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada, I, xxv.
Philippe de Commines, Memoires, vol. 1; David A. Thomas, The Illustrated Armada Handbook; Alexander McKee, From Merciless Invaders, p. 26.
Santa Cruz to Philip II, quoted in McKee, op. cit., p. 25.
Martin and Parker, op. cit., p. 108; CSPV 8, 128–32, 1 May 1586.
Garrett Mattingly, The Defeat of the Spanish Armada, p. 82; Geoffrey Parker and I.A.A. Thompson, “The Battle of Lepanto,” pp. 13–22; Sir Roger Williams, quoted in Judith Richards, “Before the ‘Mountaynes Mouse,’ ” p. 13.
Jean Bodin, Response to the Paradoxes of Malestroit; Mattingly, op. cit., p. 82; Lippomano to the Doge, CSPV, 24 August 1586; King to the Prince of Parma, 4 September 1587, CSPS iv 141.
Martin and Parker, op. cit., p. 108; Notes of Public Business, 25 December 1585, SPD clxxxv 32; CSPI p. 67.
C. Christopher Lloyd, English Corsairs on the Barbary Coast; King to Bernardino de Mendoza, 11 April 1587, CSPS iv 60; CSPS iii 516.
Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 27 December 1587, CSPS iv 188; King to Bernardino de Mendoza, 28 February 1587, CSPS iv 26.
“Statement which Gorion, the Apothecary of the Queen of Scotland was ordered to make,” 24 October 1587, CSPS iv 157; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 27 November 1587, CSPS iv 175; King to Count de Olivares, 31 March 1587, CSPS iv 58; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 28 November 1587, CSPS iv 178.
Draft of propositions to be submitted by Count de Olivares to the Pope, June 1587, CSPS iv 117; King to Count de Olivares, 11 February 1587, CSPS iv 17; Count de Olivares to the King, 30 July 1587, CSPS iv 133; Count de Olivares to the King, 16 March 1587, CSPS iv 39.
Count de Olivares to the King, 30 June 1587, CSPS iv 115; A. M. Hadfield, Time to Finish the Game, p. 47; McKee, op. cit., p. 40; The Pope to the King, 7 August 1587, CSPS iv 137.
The Pope to the King, 7 August 1587, CSPS iv 137; Count de Olivares to the King, 2 March 1587, CSPS iv 30; Hadfield, op. cit.
“Considerations why it is desirable to carry through the Enterprise of England,” 18 March 1587, CSPS iv 42; Count de Olivares to the King, 30 July 1587, CSPS iv 133; Maurice of Nassau to Walsingham, 9 December 1587, CSPF xxi, part 3 448–9; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 5 April 1587, CSPS iv 62.
CHAPTER THREE:
The Master of the Sea
Alison Weir, The Life of Elizabeth I, pp. 227, 238, 255; John Guy, Tudor England, pp. 331–51; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 20 May 1587, CSPS iv 91; Paul Hentzner, Travels in England.
R. B. Wernham, Before the Armada, p. 359; Jasper Ridley, The Tudor Age; Michael Oppenheim, Introduction to William Monson, Naval Tracts, I, p. 40; Guy, op. cit.
Wallace T. MacCaffrey, Queen Elizabeth and the Making of Policy, p. 338; “Names of the Heretics, Schismatics and neutrals in the Realm of England,” 1587, CSPS iv 190; Salisbury MS, III, P 67–70, CSPF xix 95–8; Guy, op. cit.
Sir Thomas Smith, quoted in Guy, op. cit.; P. W. Hasler (ed.), House of Commons 1558–1603, vol. 3, p. 572; MacCaffrey, op. cit., pp. 353–6.
Advices from London, 17 July 1588, CSPS iv 345; CSPS iii 159; CSPF xv, 302; Secretary Idiaquez to Bernardino de Mendoza, 28 January 1587, CSPS iv 14; Gordon K. McBride, “Elizabethan Foreign Policy in Microcosm,” pp. 203–4; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 24 January 1587, CSPS iv 9.
E. Kouri, “England and the Attempts to Form a Protestant Alliance in the late 1560s,” p. 16; King to Medina-Sidonia, 1 July 1588, in C. Christopher Lloyd (ed.), The Naval Miscellany, vol. 4, p. 23.
Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 26 June 1588, CSPS iv 322; Bernardino de Mendoza to the King, 2 June 1588, CSPS iv 306.
Regulation as to Letters of Marque, SPD clxxx 15; William Camden, Annales; Garrett Mattingly, The Defeat of the Spanish Armada, p. 85; Samuel Purchas, Purchas his Pilgrimes, vol. VI, p. 1185;
SP 12/49/40.
Gordon Connell-Smith, Forerunners of Drake, pp. 199–203; N.A.M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, p. 239; Richard Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, XI, pp. 114–15.
Letter of Don Francisco Zarate to Don Martin Enriquez, Viceroy of New Spain, in Zelia Nuttall (ed.), New Light on Drake; Ada Haeseler Lewis, A Study of Elizabethan Ship Money; Dr. Julius Caesar to Lord Howard, 18 December 1590, Lansdowne MSS 157, p. 434; Kenneth R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p. 30; Agenda for the Council, 3 October 1587, SPD cciv 2; Peter Kemp, The British Sailor, p. 17.
Andrews, op. cit., pp. 22–30; David Mathew, “The Cornish and Welsh Pirates in the Reign of Elizabeth,” pp. 337–48; CSPD Elizabeth xxxiv 65; xxxv 5; Request of the Merchant Adventurers, 15 June 1587, SPD ccii 27.
Michael Oppenheim, The Maritime History of Devon, p. 31; Douglas Bell, Elizabethan Seamen, pp. 219–20; J. L. Motley, History of the United Netherlands, pp. 173–4; Cecil Henry L’Estrange Ewen, “Organised Piracy Round England in the Sixteenth Century,” p. 30; Edward P. A. Cheyney, “International Law under Queen Elizabeth,” in Law in History.
Sybil Jack, “The Cinque Ports and the Spanish Armada,” p. 148; John Hagthorpe, England’s Exchequer, p. 25; Andrews, op. cit., pp. 32, 16, 43, 128; CSPV 1617–19, p. 146.
Charles A. LeGuin, “Sea Life in Seventeenth Century England,” pp. 111–34; William Monson, Naval Tracts, II, p. 237; Sir Julian Stafford Corbett, Papers Relating to the Navy during the Spanish War, pp. 281–2; Boteler’s Dialogues, p. 36; Captain John Smith, quoted in Kenneth R. Andrews, The Elizabethan Seaman, p. 247; quoted in Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p. 42.
Leland, Itinerary; BL Stowe MSS, 555, 147–9; Edmond Howes, The Annales, or Generall Chronicle of England; SPD ccliii 49.
CSPV 8, 128–32, 1 January 1586; Bell, op. cit., p. 188; CSPS iii 45–6; John Stow, The Annales or Generall Chronicles of England.
Irene A. Wright (ed.), Further English Voyages to Spanish America 1583–1594, doc. 28; Sir Geoffrey Callender, “The Naval Campaign of 1587,” pp. 82–91; Leonard Digges, Geometrica; John W. Shirley, Thomas Harriot, a Biography.
