“their experiences than other people” Gary Wolf, “Steve Jobs: The Next Insanely Great Thing,” Wired, April 1996.
“pushed to use it sometimes” In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Catmull wrote: “It is too simple to say that people need to be pushed. Yes, they do, but they also need to be allowed to create, and we must make it safe for them to find something new. Andrew and I both need to be a force to make things move along, while at the same time, trying to keep fear from slowing them down or getting stuck. This is what makes the job so hard.”
make them stay put Art Fry, “The Post-it note: An Intrapreneurial Success,” SAM Advanced Management Journal 52, no. 3 (1987): 4.
from wine spills P. R. Cowley, “The Experience Curve and History of the Cellophane Business,” Long Range Planning 18, no. 6 (1985): 84–90.
middle of the night Lewis A. Barness, “History of Infant Feeding Practices,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 46, no. 1 (1987): 168–70; Donna A. Dowling, “Lessons from the Past: A Brief History of the Influence of Social, Economic, and Scientific Factors on Infant Feeding,” Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews 5, no. 1 (2005): 2–9.
psychologist Gary Klein Gary Klein, Seeing What Others Don’t: The Remarkable Ways We Gain Insights (New York: PublicAffairs, 2013).
of people’s expectations In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Bobby Lopez wrote: “From our perspective—we hit ‘send’ on an email with our mp3 attached, and then count the minutes, hours, or sometimes days before we hear back from them. Sometimes it means something and sometimes it doesn’t. We didn’t hear back right away, so we began to doubt the song, but when they did call us it was clear they were very excited.”
“feel like one of us” In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, a spokeswoman for Walt Disney Animation Studios wrote that Lee “had written a draft of the script already in April [2012 in] which Elsa was a more sympathetic character but there was still a plan for her to turn evil halfway through the film. [“Let It Go”] first appeared in [an] August 2012 screening. “Let It Go” helped shift the tone of the Elsa character. It should be noted that John Lasseter felt a personal tie to this as well—when thinking of Elsa, he thought of his son, Sam, and his juvenile diabetes. When Sam was getting poked and prodded as a child, he turned to John and said, ‘Why me?’ It wasn’t Sam’s fault he had diabetes, just as it is not Elsa’s fault she has these icy powers.”
“It had to feel real” In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, a spokeswoman for Walt Disney Animation Studios wrote that Chris Buck had a vision for how the film would end. “The ending—making it work emotionally[—]was a puzzle. By October 2012, Jennifer had the ending envisioning the four main characters in a blizzard of fear, which story artist John Ripa boarded. Ripa’s boards received a standing ovation from John Lasseter in the room. As Jennifer says, ‘We knew the end, we just needed to earn it.’ ”
pressure that comes from deadlines Teresa M. Amabile et al., “Assessing the Work Environment for Creativity,” Academy of Management Journal 39, no. 5 (1996): 1154–84; Teresa M. Amabile, Constance N. Hadley, and Steven J. Kramer, “Creativity Under the Gun,” Harvard Business Review 80, no. 8 (2002): 52–61; Teresa M. Amabile, “How to Kill Creativity,” Harvard Business Review 76, no. 5 (1998): 76–87; Teresa M. Amabile, “A Model of Creativity and Innovation in Organizations,” Research in Organizational Behavior 10, no. 1 (1988): 123–67.
“Lee a second director” In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Catmull wrote that it is important to emphasize that Lee was a second director, not a “codirector,” which has multiple meanings in Hollywood. “There is an actual title of ‘Co-director’ which is at a lower level than ‘director.’ At Disney we frequently have two directors who both have the title of ‘director.’ In this case, both Jenn and Chris were equal directors….Jenn was made director along with Chris.”
spinning in place In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Millstein wrote: “Jenn’s promotion to an equal directing partner with Chris provided an opportunity to alter the team dynamics in a positive way and their receptivity to potential new ideas….Jenn is a very sensitive and emphatic filmmaker. Her sensitivity to team dynamics, her role and voice and deep need to maintain a deep collaboration is what helped make Frozen successful.” One additional factor influencing the decision to promote Lee to director, according to Buck, was that at that time, one of his children had a health issue that required attention, and as a result “John and Ed and Andrew saw my personal need, and they asked me, right before, what would you think of having Jenn as a co-director? And I said yes, I said absolutely, I would love that.”
ecologically bland I am indebted to the help of Stephen Palumbi of Stanford’s Hopkins Marine Station and Elizabeth Alter of the City University of New York for their assistance in my understanding of the intermittent disturbance hypothesis.
distributed so unevenly Joseph H. Connell, “Diversity in Tropical Rain Forests and Coral Reefs,” Science, n.s. 199, no. 4335 (1978): 1302–10.
intermediate disturbance hypothesis Like many scientific theories, the intermediate disturbance hypothesis has many parents. For a more complete history, please see David M. Wilkinson, “The Disturbing History of Intermediate Disturbance,” Oikos 84, no. 1 (1999): 145–47.
“nor too frequent” John Roth and Mark Zacharias, Marine Conservation Ecology (London: Routledge, 2011).
staple of biology For more on the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, including the perspectives of those who challenge the theory, please see Wilkinson, “The Disturbing History of Intermediate Disturbance”; Jane A. Catford et al., “The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis and Plant Invasions: Implications for Species Richness and Management,” Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 14, no. 3 (2012): 231–41; John Vandermeer et al., “A Theory of Disturbance and Species Diversity: Evidence from Nicaragua After Hurricane Joan,” Biotropica 28, no. 4 (1996): 600–613; Jeremy W. Fox, “The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis Should Be Abandoned,” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 28, no. 2 (2013): 86–92.
Lee sat down with John Lasseter In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Catmull wrote that figuring out Frozen’s ending was a team effort. John Ripa, an animator at Disney, storyboarded the ending. “This was a powerful and influential part of the development of the story….[In addition] there was a particularly impactful offsite where a great deal of progress was made.”
“tell the team,” said Lasseter In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, a spokeswoman for Walt Disney Animation Studios wrote: “Jennifer feels this is very, very important: This was a story Jennifer and Chris did together. This was a partnership. [The emails] Kristen shared were based on conversations Jennifer was having with Chris daily. Chris is just as much a part of these conversations as Jennifer, Kristen and Bobby….This is [Chris Buck’s] film, first and foremost.”
CHAPTER EIGHT: ABSORBING DATA
multiplication quiz “Dante Williams” is a pseudonym used to protect the privacy of a student who was a minor when these events occurred.
“Peace Bowl” Ben Fischer, “Slaying Halts ‘Peace Bowl,’ ” Cincinnati Enquirer, August 13, 2007.
guide Cincinnati’s efforts Marie Bienkowski et al., Enhancing Teaching and Learning Through Educational Data Mining and Learning Analytics: An Issue Brief (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Technology, October 2012), https://tech.ed.gov/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/edm-la-brief.pdf.
“we were on board” For more on Elizabeth Holtzapple’s research and Cincinnati Public Schools’ approach to data usage, I recommend Elizabeth Holtzapple, “Criterion-Related Validity Evidence for a Standards-Based Teacher Evaluation System,” Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 17, no. 3 (2003): 207–19; Elizabeth Holtzapple, Report on the Validation of Teachers Evaluation System Instructional Dom
ain Ratings (Cincinnati: Cincinnati Public Schools, 2001).
basic educational benchmarks “South Avondale Elementary: Transformation Model,” Ohio Department of Education, n.d.
the “Elementary Initiative” Information on the EI and other Cincinnati Public Schools reforms came from various sources, including Kim McGuire, “In Cincinnati, They’re Closing the Achievement Gap,” Star Tribune, May 11, 2004; Alyson Klein, “Education Week, Veteran Educator Turns Around Cincinnati Schools,” Education Week, February 4, 2013; Nolan Rosenkrans, “Cincinnati Offers Toledo Schools a Road Map to Success,” The Blade, May 13, 2012; Gregg Anrig, “How to Turn an Urban School District Around—Without Cheating,” The Atlantic, May 9, 2013; John Kania and Mark Kramer, “Collective Impact,” Stanford Social Innovation Review 9, no. 1 (Winter 2011): 36–41; Lauren Morando Rhim, Learning How to Dance in the Queen City: Cincinnati Public Schools’ Turnaround Initiative, Darden/Curry Partnership for Leaders in Education (Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 2011); Emily Ayscue Hassel and Bryan C. Hassel, “The Big U Turn,” Education Next 9, no. 1 (2009): 20–27; Rebecca Herman et al., Turning Around Chronically Low-Performing Schools: A Practice Guide (Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, 2008); Guide to Understanding Ohio’s Accountability System, 2008–2009 (Columbus: Ohio Department of Education, 2009), Web; Daniela Doyle and Lyria Boast, 2010 Annual Report: The University of Virginia School Turnaround Specialist Program, Darden/Curry Partnership for Leaders in Education, Public Impact (Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 2011); Dana Brinson et al., School Turnarounds: Actions and Results, Public Impact (Lincoln, Ill.: Center on Innovation and Improvement, 2008); L. M. Rhim and S. Redding, eds., The State Role in Turnaround: Emerging Best Practices (San Francisco: WestEd, 2014); William S. Robinson and LeAnn M. Buntrock, “Turnaround Necessities,” The School Administrator 68, no. 3 (March 2011): 22–27; Susan McLester, “Turnaround Principals,” District Administration (May 2011); Daniel Player and Veronica Katz, “School Improvement in Ohio and Missouri: An Evaluation of the School Turnaround Specialist Program” (CEPWC Working Paper Series no. 10, University of Virginia, Curry School of Education, June 2013), Web; Alison Damast, “Getting Principals to Think Like Managers,” Bloomberg Businessweek, February 16, 2012; “CPS ‘Turnaround Schools’ Lift District Performance,” The Cincinnati Herald, August 21, 2010; Dakari Aarons, “Schools Innovate to Keep Students on Graduation Track,” Education Week, June 2, 2010; “Facts at a Glance,” Columbia Public Schools K–12, n.d., Web.
how to use it The Cincinnati Public School system’s Elementary Initiative had other components in addition to instructing teachers in how to use data. Those included using data and analysis to guide evidence-based decisions; implementing a new principal evaluation system aligned to the district’s strategic plan that included student performance scores; expanding school-site learning teams of teachers to build capacity in all schools; training primary and intermediate content specialists in core subjects; and becoming more family friendly and community engaged. “Using data and evidence, we will improve practice, differentiate instruction, and track learning results for every student,” the district wrote in a summary of the initiative. “Our goal is to create a collaborative learning culture that involves families, is embraced in schools and is supported by the Board, central office and the community. Such a culture is at the heart of the elementary school initiative….Just as the medical community uses diagnostics to determine treatment for critical care patients, so are we using data and analysis with 15 critical care schools to reshape training, support and delivery of services aligned to the academic, social and emotional needs of the students.” (“Elementary Initiative: Ready for High School,” Cincinnati Public Schools, 2014, http://www.cps-k12.org/academics/district-initiatives/elementary-initiative.) It is also worth noting that, though everyone spoken to in reporting this chapter credits a data-driven approach with fueling South Avondale’s transformation, they also noted that such changes were possible only because of strong leadership at the school and commitment from teachers.
inner-city reform “Elementary Initiative: Ready for High School.”
state math exam Ibid.; South Avondale Elementary School Ranking,” School Digger, 2014, http://www.schooldigger.com/go/OH/schools/0437500379/school.aspx; “South Avondale Elementary School Profile,” Great Schools, 2013, Web.
the school district read “School Improvement, Building Profiles, South Avondale,” Ohio Department of Education, 2014, Web.
but more useful For more on the role of data in classroom improvement, please see Thomas J. Kane et al., “Identifying Effective Classroom Practices Using Student Achievement Data,” Journal of Human Resources 46, no 3 (2011): 587–613; Pam Grossman et al., “Measure for Measure: A Pilot Study Linking English Language Arts Instruction and Teachers’ Value-Added to Student Achievement” (CALDER Working Paper no. 45, Calder Urban Institute, May 2010); Morgaen L. Donaldson, “So Long, Lake Wobegon? Using Teacher Evaluation to Raise Teacher Quality,” Center for American Progress, June 25, 2009, Web; Eric Hanushek, “Teacher Characteristics and Gains in Student Achievement: Estimation Using Micro-Data,” The American Economic Review 61, no. 2 (1971): 280–88; Elizabeth Holtzapple, “Criterion-Related Validity Evidence for a Standards-Based Teacher Evaluation System,” Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education 17, no. 3 (2003): 207–19; Brian A. Jacob and Lars Lefgren, Principals as Agents: Subjective Performance Measurement in Education (working paper no. w11463, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2005); Brian A. Jacob, Lars Lefgren, and David Sims, The Persistence of Teacher-Induced Learning Gains (working paper no. w14065, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2008); Thomas J. Kane and Douglas O. Staiger, Estimating Teacher Impacts on Student Achievement: An Experimental Evaluation (working paper no. w14607, National Bureau of Economic Research, 2008); Anthony Milanowski, “The Relationship Between Teacher Performance Evaluation Scores and Student Achievement: Evidence from Cincinnati,” Peabody Journal of Education 79, no. 4 (2004): 33–53; Richard J. Murnane and Barbara R. Phillips, “What Do Effective Teachers of Inner-City Children Have in Common?” Social Science Research 10, no. 1 (1981): 83–100; Steven G. Rivkin, Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain, “Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement,” Econometrica 73, no. 2 (2005): 417–58.
less stressful Jessica L. Buck, Elizabeth McInnis, and Casey Randolph, The New Frontier of Education: The Impact of Smartphone Technology in the Classroom, American Society for Engineering Education, 2013 ASEE Southeast Section Conference; Neal Lathia et al., “Smartphones for Large-Scale Behavior Change Interventions,” IEEE Pervasive Computing 3 (2013): 66–73; “Sites That Help You Track Your Spending and Saving,” Money Counts: Young Adults and Financial Literacy, NPR, May 18, 2011; Shafiq Qaadri, “Meet a Doctor Who Uses a Digital Health Tracker and Thinks You Should Too,” The Globe and Mail, September 4, 2014; Claire Cain Miller, “Collecting Data on a Good Night’s Sleep,” The New York Times, March 10, 2014; Steven Beasley and Annie Conway, “Digital Media in Everyday Life: A Snapshot of Devices, Behaviors, and Attitudes,” Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago, 2011; Adam Tanner, “The Web Cookie Is Dying. Here’s the Creepier Technology That Comes Next,” Forbes, June 17, 2013, http://www.forbes.com/sites/adamtanner/2013/06/17/the-web-cookie-is-dying-heres-the-creepier-technology-that-comes-next/.
harder to decide For more on information overload and information blindness, please see Martin J. Eppler and Jeanne Mengis, “The Concept of Information Overload: A Review of Literature from Organization Science, Accounting, Marketing, MIS, and Related Disciplines,” The Information Society 20, no. 5 (2004): 325–44; Pamela Karr-Wisniewski and Ying Lu, “When More Is Too Much: Operationalizing Technology Overload and Exploring Its Impact on Knowledge Worker Productivity,” Computers in Human Behavior 26, no. 5 (2010): 1061–72; Jo
seph M. Kayany, “Information Overload and Information Myths,” Itera, n.d., http://www.itera.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/ITERA12_Paper15.pdf; Marta Sinclair and Neal M. Ashkanasy, “Intuition Myth or a Decision-Making Tool?” Management Learning 36, no. 3 (2005): 353–70.
blanket of powder Snow blindness can also refer to a burn of the cornea, which is the front surface of the eye, by ultraviolet B rays.
enroll in 401(k) plans Sheena S. Iyengar, Gur Huberman, and Wei Jiang, “How Much Choice Is Too Much? Contributions to 401(k) Retirement Plans,” Pension Design and Structure: New Lessons from Behavioral Finance (Philadelphia: Pension Research Council, 2004): 83–95.
more than thirty plans In an email sent in response to fact-checking questions, Tucker Kuman, a colleague of the paper’s lead author, Sheena Sethi-Iyengar, wrote: “What was observed in the analysis was that, everything else being equal, every ten funds added was associated with a 1.5 percent to 2 percent drop in employee participation rate (peak participation—75%—occurred when 2 funds were offered)….As the offerings increased in number, the decline in participation rates is exacerbated. If you look at the graphic representation [Figure 5–2 in the paper] of the relationship between participation and number of funds offered, you’ll notice we begin to see a steeper decline in participation rates when the number of funds hits about 31.”
information overload Jeanne Mengis and Martin J. Eppler, “Seeing Versus Arguing the Moderating Role of Collaborative Visualization in Team Knowledge Integration,” Journal of Universal Knowledge Management 1, no. 3 (2006): 151–62; Martin J. Eppler and Jeanne Mengis, “The Concept of Information Overload: A Review of Literature from Organization Science, Accounting, Marketing, MIS, and Related Disciplines,” The Information Society 20, no. 5 (2004): 325–44.
“winnowing” or “scaffolding” Fergus I. M. Craik and Endel Tulving, “Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 104, no. 3 (1975): 268; Monique Ernst and Martin P. Paulus, “Neurobiology of Decision Making: A Selective Review from a Neurocognitive and Clinical Perspective,” Biological Psychiatry 58, no. 8 (2005): 597–604; Ming Hsu et al., “Neural Systems Responding to Degrees of Uncertainty in Human Decision-Making,” Science 310, no. 5754 (2005): 1680–83.
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