by Philip Dwyer
68. Tulard, Murat, p. 158.
69. On relations between Napoleon and Pius VII see Lentz, Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire, i. pp. 481–500.
70. Corr. xi. n. 9656 (7 January 1805).
71. Corr. xii. n. 9806 (13 February 1806).
72. Talleyrand, Mémoires, ii. pp. 100–1.
73. Corr. nos. 15218 and 15219 (17 May 1809).
74. Victor Bindel, Un rêve de Napoléon: le Vatican à Paris (1809–1814) (Paris, 1943), pp. 14, 87, 143.
75. Yves Bercé, ‘Rome, 1796–1814’, in Bruno Foucart (ed.), Camille de Tournon: le préfet de la Rome napoléonienne: 1809–1814 (Boulogne-Billancourt, 2001), pp. 25–32, here p. 30.
76. Corr. xx. n. 16263 (17 February 1810).
77. Bartolomeo Pacca, Oeuvres complètes du cardinal B. Pacca, 2 vols (Paris, 1845), i. p. 113.
78. Sébastien Joseph Comeau de Charry, Souvenirs des guerres d’Allemagne pendant la Révolution et l’Empire (Paris, 1900), p. 428.
79. Corr. xix. n. 15528 (15 July 1809).
80. Lecestre (ed.), Lettres inédites, i. p. 317 (20 June 1809).
81. Corr. xix. n. 15383 (19 June 1809).
82. Etienne Radet, Mémoires du général Radet (Saint-Cloud, 1892), pp. 169–86.
83. Corr. xix. n. 15555 (18 July 1809).
84. Corr. xix. n. 15578 (23 July 1809); Cambacérès, Lettres inédites à Napoléon, ii. p. 703 (30 July 1809).
85. Corr. xix. n. 15634 (10 August 1809).
86. Lecestre (ed.), Lettres inédites, i. pp. 362–3 (15 September 1809).
87. Melchior-Bonnet, Napoléon et le Pape, pp. 195–7.
88. Chevallier and Pincemaille, L’impératrice Joséphine, p. 338.
89. Girardin, Mémoires, journal et souvenirs, i. p. 343.
90. On Josephine’s expenses see Frédéric Masson, Joséphine répudiée (1809–1814) (Paris, 1901), pp. 98–105; Rémusat, Mémoires, ii. pp. 342–7; Ernest John Knapton, Empress Josephine (Cambridge, Mass., 1964), pp. 264–5.
91. Masson, Napoléon et sa famille, i. pp. 327–8.
92. According to Claire de Rémusat, Mémoires de Mme de Rémusat 1802–1808, introduction and notes by Charles Kunstler (Paris, 1957), p. 71; McLynn, Napoleon, pp. 300–1.
93. See Masson, Napoléon et les femmes; Alain Pigeard, Napoléon amoureux (Paris, 2007), pp. 81–148; Lilly Marcou, Napoléon et les femmes (Paris, 2008), pp. 216–27.
94. Masson, Joséphine répudiée, pp. 27–8; Chevallier and Pincemaille, L’impératrice Joséphine, p. 331; Lentz, Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire, i. p. 436. Eléonore returned to Paris three husbands and three decades later as the wife of the Bavarian ambassador.
95. Correspondance inédite de Napoléon Ier, de la famille impériale et de divers personnages avec Pauline Borghèse (Paris, 1939), pp. 30, 32, 37; Girardin, Mémoires, journal et souvenirs, i. p. 339.
96. Berlier, Précis de la vie politique, pp. 111–12.
97. Caulaincourt, Memoirs, i. p. 89.
98. Vandal, Napoléon et Alexandre, i. p. 461.
99. See, for example, the police report dated 11 February 1808, in Hauterive, La police secrète du premier Empire, iv. p. 54. They appear to have reached the army on campaign in Germany around the beginning of 1810 (Parquin, Souvenirs, p. 207).
100. Roderick Phillips, Family Breakdown in Late Eighteenth-Century France: Divorces in Rouen, 1792–1803 (Oxford, 1980), pp. 159–65; Roderick Phillips, Putting Asunder: A History of Divorce in Western Society (Cambridge, 1988), pp. 405–12; Roderick Phillips, Untying the Knot: A Short History of Divorce (Cambridge, 1991), pp. 74–80.
101. Frédéric Masson, Mme Bonaparte (Paris, 1920), pp. 336–7; Chevallier and Pincemaille, L’impératrice Joséphine, p.6.
102. Bertrand, Cahiers de Sainte-Hélène, iii. pp. 98–9.
103. Elie Faure, Napoléon (Paris, 1983), pp. 103–11.
104. Masson, Napoléon et les femmes; Rémusat, Mémoires, ii. pp. 86–95; Caulaincourt, Memoirs, ii. pp. 330–1.
105. Caulaincourt, Memoirs, ii. pp. 322, 331.
106. For what follows, Bausset, Mémoires anecdotiques, i. pp. 369–74; Hortense, Mémoires, ii. pp. 44–6; Turquan, L’Impératrice Joséphine, pp. 182–5; Chevallier and Pincemaille, L’impératrice Joséphine, pp. 338–9.
107. Patricia Mainardi, Husbands, Wives, and Lovers: Marriage and its Discontents in Nineteenth-Century France (New Haven, 2003), pp. 12–14. On the divorce see Masson, Joséphine répudiée, pp. 1–110; Welschinger, Le Divorce de Napoléon; Lentz, Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire, i. pp. 496–9.
108. Chatel de Brancion, Le sacre de Napoléon, pp. 139–40.
109. Hauterive, La police secrète du premier Empire, iv. p. 54 (11 February 1808).
110. Chatel de Brancion, Cambacérès, pp. 496–7.
111. Hortense, Mémoires, ii. p. 54.
112. Lavalette, Mémoires, p. 263.
113. Lavalette, Mémoires, p. 265. Hortense, Mémoires, ii. pp. 44–5, describes another occasion on which Napoleon cried at the thought of being ‘abandoned’.
114. A similar sentiment is expressed by McLynn, Napoleon, p. 465.
115. Chevallier and Pincemaille, L’impératrice Joséphine, pp. 345–6.
116. Parquin, Souvenirs, p. 207.
117. Berlier, Précis de la vie politique, p. 112.
118. Tourtier-Bonazzi, Lettres d’amour à Joséphine, pp. 359–70; Chevallier and Pincemaille, L’impératrice Joséphine, pp. 343–4.
16 : Bourgeois Emperor, Universal Emperor
1. Lentz, Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire, i. pp. 502–5.
2. The meeting is in Cambacérès, Mémoires inédites, ii. pp. 326–9; Talleyrand,Mémoires, ii. pp. 7–10; Alfred-Auguste Ernouf, Maret, duc de Bassano (Paris, 1878), pp. 275–7.
3. Cambacérès, Mémoires inédites, ii. p. 327; Fouché, Mémoires, i, pp. 401, 404–9; Beugnot, Mémoires, i. pp. 425–6.
4. Hauterive, La police secrète du premier Empire, v. p. 326 (21 February 1810).
5. Pillard, Louis Fontanes, p. 238.
6. Cambacérès, Mémoires inédites, ii. p. 328.
7. Talleyrand, Mémoires, i. pp. 447–8.
8. Elisabeth to Alexander (29 August/10 September 1807), Nikolaï Mikhaïlovitch (ed.), L’impératrice Elisabeth, épouse d’Alexandre Ier, 3 vols (St Petersburg, 1908–9), ii. p. 253. On Ekaterina see Martin, Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries, pp. 51–2; Maistre, Oeuvres complètes, xi. pp. 163–4.
9. Björnstjerna (ed.), Mémoires du comte de Stedingk, ii. p. 356 (10 October 1807); J. Merkle, Katharina Pawlowna, Königin von Württemberg, Beiträge zu einer Lebensbeschreibung der Fürstin (Stuttgart, 1889), pp. 9–19.
10. Adams (ed.), Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, ii. p. 93 (9 January 1810).
11. Björnstjerna (ed.), Mémoires du comte de Stedingk, ii. p. 414 (7 December 1807).
12. Mikhaïlovitch (ed.), L’impératrice Elisabeth, ii. p. 211; Mikhaïlovitch (ed.), Correspondance de l’empereur Alexandre Ier avec sa soeur la grande-duchesse Catherine, pp. xxi, 27; Martin, Maria Féodorovna, pp. 166–9.
13. Caulaincourt, Mémoires, i. pp. 89–90.
14. Martin, Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries, p. 51.
15. Lecestre (ed.), Lettres inédites, ii. pp. 15–16 (26 February 1810).
16. On the theatre see David Chaillou, ‘L’annonce du mariage dans les spectacles parisiens’, in Thierry Lentz (ed.), 1810: le tournant de l’Empire (Paris, 2010), pp. 23–35.
17. Arthur-Léon Imbert de Saint-Amand, Les beaux jours de l’impératrice Marie-Louise: les femmes des Tuileries (Paris, 1885), pp. 113–15.
18. Jean-Paul Bled, ‘Le renversement des alliances’, in Lentz (ed.), 1810: le tournant de l’Empire, p. 19.
19. Michael Rowe, ‘France, Prussia, or Germany? The Napoleonic Wars and the Shifting Allegiances in the Rhineland’, Central European History, 39 (2006), 611–40, here 622.
20. Arthur Chuquet (ed.), Souvenirs du baron de Frénilly, pair de France (1768–1828) (Paris, 1908), p. 324.
21. Mai
stre, Mémoires politiques et correspondance diplomatique, pp. 348–9; Geoffroy de Grandmaison, Napoléon et les cardinaux noirs (1810–1814) (Paris, 1895), p. 40.
22. Martin, Romantics, Reformers, Reactionaries, p. 50.
23. See Caulaincourt, Memoirs, i. pp. 112–13; Vandal, Napoléon et Alexandre, ii. pp. 288–9; Adam Zamoyski, 1812: Napoleon’s Fatal March on Moscow (London, 2004), p. 58; Rey, Alexandre Ier, pp. 264–5.
24. Frédéric Masson, L’impératrice Marie-Louise: 1809–1815 (Paris, 1902), p. 41. Metternich’s assertion that the proposal came as a complete surprise in 1810 and that it was never mentioned either before or after the Peace of Vienna is simply unfounded (Metternich, Mémoires, i. pp. 95–7).
25. Pasquier, Mémoires, i. pp. 337–9.
26. A theory proposed by Gotteri, Napoléon, pp. 144–5.
27. Kraehe, Metternich’s German Policy, i. p. 124.
28. Kraehe, Metternich’s German Policy, i. p. 124.
29. See, for example, Cobenzl to Stadion, in Beer, ‘Österreich und Russland in den Jahren 1804 und 1805’, 214 (1 April 1804).
30. Metternich, Mémoires, ii. pp. 376–84.
31. Metternich, Mémoires, i. p. 97.
32. Constantin de Grunwald, ‘Le mariage de Napoléon et de Marie-Louise’, Revue des Deux Mondes, 38 (1937), 343–7.
33. Lentz, Nouvelle histoire du Premier Empire, i. p. 504.
34. Branda, Napoléon et ses hommes, pp. 353–4.
35. Lecestre (ed.), Lettres inédites, ii. pp. 15–16 (26 February 1810).
36. Leferme-Falguières, Les courtisans, pp. 82–3.
37. On the imperial court see Jean Tulard, ‘La cour de Napoléon Ier’, in Karl Ferdinand Werner (ed.), Hof, Kultur und Politik im 19. Jahrhundert (Bonn, 1985), pp. 55–9. On etiquette Jeroen Duindam, ‘Ceremony at Court: Reflections on an Elusive Subject’, Francia, 26:2 (1999), 131–40.
38. According to Frédéric Masson, L’impératrice Marie-Louise (Paris, 1902), pp. 22–3; Françoise Darle, Au temps de Napoléon Bonaparte (Paris, 1961), p. 100.
39. Masson, L’impératrice Marie-Louise, p. 52; Irmgard Schiel, Marie-Louise: une Habsbourg pour Napoléon, trans. from the German by Jacques Dumont (Paris, 1998), p. 98.
40. Claude-François de Méneval, Napoléon et Marie-Louise: souvenirs historiques de M. le baron Méneval, 3 vols (Paris, 1844–5), i. pp. 242–3; Schiel, Marie-Louise, pp. 27–9.
41. Auguste Fournier, Marie-Louise et la chute de Napoléon, contribution à la biographie de Marie-Louise (Paris, 1903), p. 2 n. 1; Schiel, Marie-Louise, pp. 29–30.
42. Frédéric Masson, The Private Diaries of Empress Marie Louise, Wife of Napoleon I (New York, 1922), pp. 26–7.
43. Leferme-Falguières, Les courtisans, pp. 110–14; David Chanteranne, ‘Les cérémonies du mariage’, in Lentz (ed.), 1810: le tournant de l’Empire, pp. 37–40.
44. Jean Pierrelongue (ed.), Napoléon et Marie-Louise: correspondance (Paris, 2010), pp. 2, 4–5.
45. Douglas Clark Baxter, ‘First Encounters: Bourbon Princes Meet their Brides: Ceremony, Gender and Monarchy’, Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Western Society for French History, 22 (1995), 23–31.
46. Turnbull, Napoleon’s Second Empress, pp. 44–5; Schiel, Marie-Louise, pp. 60–1.
47. Joseph Alexander Freiherr von Helfert, Maria Louise, Erzherzogin von Oesterreich, Kaiserin der Franzosen (Vienna, 1873), p. 119; Napoleon to Marie-Louise (23 March 1810), in Pierrelongue (ed.), Napoléon et Marie-Louise, pp. 9–10.
48. See Garnier, Murat, roi de Naples, pp. 17–18, for a portrait of Caroline.
49. Constant, Mémoires, iv. pp. 247–8. Napoleon spent over 68,000 francs in 1810 on clothes, mostly associated with the wedding (Colombe Samoyault-Verlet, ‘The Emperor’s Wardrobe’, in le Bourhis (ed.), The Age of Napoleon, p. 203).
50. Méneval, Mémoires, ii. pp. 333–4; Bausset, Mémoires anecdotiques, ii. pp. 7–8, 20–2; Charles de Clary-et-Aldringen, Souvenirs du prince Charles de Clary-et-Aldringen: trois mois à Paris lors du mariage de l’empereur Napoléon Ier et de l’archiduchesse Marie-Louise (Paris, 1914), p. 45; Baxter, ‘First Encounters’, pp. 25–6; Branda, Napoléon et ses hommes, pp. 379–82.
51. Geneviève Chastenet, Marie-Louise: l’otage de Napoléon (Paris, 2005), p. 69.
52. Gourgaud, Journal de Sainte-Hélène, ii. p. 273; Turnbull, Napoleon’s Second Empress, p. 53.
53. Cited in Masson, Napoléon et les femmes, p. 308; James R. Arnold, Napoleon Conquers Austria: The 1809 Campaign for Vienna (Westport, Conn., 1995), p. 194.
54. Derrécagaix, Le maréchal Berthier, ii. p. 370.
55. Schiel, Marie-Louise, p. 16; Eduard Wertheimer, Die Heirat der Erzherzogin Marie Louise mit Napoleon I: nach ungedruckten Quellen (Vienna, 1882), pp. 17–18.
56. Chastenet, Marie-Louise, pp. 90–1.
57. Masson, L’impératrice Marie-Louise, p. 103.
58. Masson, L’impératrice Marie-Louise, p. 109.
59. Cornet, Souvenirs sénatoriaux, p. 58; André Marié, ‘Le mariage civil de Napoléon à Saint-Cloud’, Revue de l’Institut Napoléon, 72 (1959), 109–14; Chanteranne, ‘Les cérémonies du mariage’, pp. 37–50.
60. Forrest, ‘Napoleon as Monarch’, p. 124; Cédric Istasse, ‘Les “mariages de la Rosière” dans le département de Sambre-et-Meuse: indices sur la réinsertion sociale des anciens soldats de Napoléon Ier’, Napoleonica. La Revue, 1:4 (2009), 11–29; Denise Z. Davidson, France after Revolution: Urban Life, Gender, and the New Social Order (Cambridge, Mass., 2007), pp. 40–1; Pfister, Les fêtes à Nancy, pp. 108–33.
61. There is a sketch of the ‘temple’ in Clary-et-Aldringen, Souvenirs, p. 82.
62. Stryienski (ed.), Memoirs of the Countess Potocka, pp. 200–2; Thibaudeau, Mémoires, p. 278; Savary, Mémoires, iv. pp. 295–6; Clary-et-Aldringen, Souvenirs, p. 83.
63. Jacques-Olivier Boudon, ‘Napoléon, les catholiques français et le pape’, in Lentz (ed.), 1810: le tournant de l’Empire, pp. 132–3.
64. Pasquier, Mémoires, i. p. 381.
65. According to Grandmaison, Napoléon et les cardinaux noirs, p. 44.
66. Lecestre (ed.), Lettres inédites, ii. pp. 21–3 (3, 4 and 5 April 1810).
67. Chastenet, Marie-Louise, p. 98.
68. Clary-et-Aldringen, Souvenirs, pp. 78–80.
69. There is a considerable body of work on Royal Entries. For France see: Cosandey, La reine de France, pp. 174–81; Pascal Lardellier, Les miroirs du paon: rites et rhétoriques politiques dans la France de l’Ancien Régime (Paris, 2003).
70. Arlette Farge, La vie fragile: violence, pouvoirs et solidarités à Paris au XVIIIe siècle (Paris, 1992), pp. 26–7.
71. Rowe, From Reich to State, p. 155.
72. Mansel, Court of France, pp. 56–7.
73. Gotteri, Napoléon, pp. 62–3.
74. Woolf, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe, p. 75.
75. Mansel, Court of France, p. 72; Martin-Fugier, La vie élégante, p. 82; Branda, Napoléon et ses hommes, pp. 101–2.
76. Hélène Meyer, ‘De la rencontre à l’idylle sous les ors de Compiègne: à propos de l’exposition du bicentenaire’, in Lentz (ed.), 1810: le tournant de l’Empire, p. 247. On their stay at Compiègne, see also Bernard Chevallier, Anne Dion-Tenenbaum, Marc Desti et al., 1810: la politique de l’amour: Napoléon Ier et Marie-Louise à Compiègne (Paris, 2010).
77. Hortense, Mémoires, ii. p. 72.
78. According to Metternich to Francis (4 April 1810), cited in Schiel, Marie-Louise, p. 97.
79. According to Metternich, cited in Schiel, Marie-Louise, p. 98.
80. Schiel, Marie-Louise, pp. 106–8.
81. Schiel, Marie-Louise, p. 101.
82. Schiel, Marie-Louise, pp. 108–9.
83. Masson, L’impératrice Marie-Louise, pp. 88–9.
84. Palmer, Metternich, p. 51.
85. Claude-Philibert, comte de Rambuteau, Mémoires du comte de Rambuteau (Paris, 1905), pp. 49–51.
86. Lejeune, Mémoires, pp. 286–8; Jacques Jourquin,
‘L’incendie de l’ambassade d’Autriche, 1er juillet 1810’, Napoleon Ier, 8 (May–June 2001), 56–62; Castellane, Journal, i. pp. 78–9.
87. Lavalette, Mémoires, pp. 266–9.
88. Cambacérès, Mémoires inédites, ii. p. 366; Schiel, Marie-Louise, p. 116. For a discussion of the birth see June K. Burton, Napoleon and the Woman Question: Discourses of the Other Sex in French Education, Medicine, and Medical Law 1799–1815 (Lubbock, Tex., 2007), pp.15–25.
89. A slightly different account in Rambuteau, Mémoires, p. 56. See Jean Tulard, Napoléon II (Paris, 1992), pp. 49–62.
90. Hortense, Mémoires, ii. p. 127.
91. Letter from Metternich to Francis (9 May 1810), cited in Schiel, Marie-Louise, p. 98.
92. Marie-Louise to Francis (23 April 1811), cited in Schiel, Marie-Louise, pp. 119–20.
93. AN F7 3835, Rapports de la préfecture de police, 20 March 1811.
94. Stendhal, Oeuvres intimes, i. p. 664; François-Louis Poumiès de la Siboutie, Souvenirs d’un médecin de Paris (Paris, 1910), p. 95.
95. Nicole Gotteri (ed.), La police secrète du Premier Empire, 7 vols (Paris, 1997–2004), ii. p. 233 (20 March 1811).
96. Boigne, Récits d’une tante, i. p. 263.
97. As Frédéric Masson, Napoléon et son fils (Paris, 1904), pp. 133–4, argues.
98. AN F7 3835, 21 March 1811.
99. AN F7 3835, 25 March 1811.
100. AN AFIV 1452 contains a number of poems written for the occasion. See also Hommages poétiques à leurs majestés impériales et royales, a collection of poems in two volumes. Two plays that met with a ‘vif succès’ according to the secret police reports were L’Enfant de Mars et Flore at the Cirque Olympique, which could hold 2,700 spectators, and L’Olympe, Vienne, Paris et Rome at the Odéon (Gotteri (ed.), La police secrète, ii. pp. 261 and 271 (28 March and 1 April 1811)). See also John Grand-Carteret, L’aiglon en images et dans la fiction poétique et dramatique (Paris, 1901), pp. 33–52, 173–97.
101. Moniteur universel, 21, 23 March 1811. Bulletins concerning the state of health of Marie-Louise were published over the following days, but there was no publication of letters of congratulations by the people. See Jean Tulard, La province au temps de Napoléon (Paris, 2003), pp. 175–6; Katherine Aaslestad, Place and Politics: Local Identity, Civic Culture, and German Nationalism in North Germany during the Revolutionary Era (Leiden, 2005), pp. 251–2.
