by Gerard Colby
71. New York Times, April 3, 1964.
72. Michael C. Jensen, “The Pews of Philadelphia,” New York Times, October 10, 1971; G. William Domhoff, Who Rules America? (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1967), p. 87.
73. Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, 93rd Cong., 2nd sess. Hearings on the Nomination of Nelson A. Rockefeller of New York to Be Vice President of the United States (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1974), p. 657.
74. New York Times, July 19, 1964, pp. 1, 6.
75. Holmes Alexander, “LBJ and the Gordian Knot of Brazil,” New Haven Register April 18, 1964.
76. Norman Mailer, Cannibals and Christians (New York: Dial Press, 1966), p. 32.
77. Houston Chronicle, December 3, 1974. Based on testimony of J. Richardson Dilworth at vice presidential confirmation hearings that Nelson Rockefeller’s 1964 dividend income amounted to about $5 million.
30: BENEATH THE EYEBROWS OF THE JUNGLE
1. Tad Szulc, Latin America (New York: Times Books, 1965), pp. 21, 89.
2. Peruvian Times, January 17, 1964, p. 3.
3. Moody’s Industrial Manual (New York: Frederic Hatch & Company, 1965), p. 1642.
4. Jean-François G. Landeau, Strategies of U.S. Independent Oil Companies Abroad (Ann Arbor, Mich.: University Microfilms International Research Press, 1977), Exhibit 7, p. 101.
5. New York Times, January 15, 1964, p. 39.
6. W. C. Townsend to Sen. Michael Monroney, June 25, 1963, Townsend Archives.
7. W. C. Townsend to Lynn Bollinger, June 25, 1963, in ibid.
8. Peruvian Times, October 16, 1953, p. 5.
9. Ibid., January 31, 1964.
10. La Crónica, March 13, 14, 16, 1964; El Comercio, March 13, 16, 1964.
11. La Crónica, March 14, 15, 1964; El Expreso, March 27, 1964.
12. El Expreso, March 18, 20, 22, 1964; “Quienes Empujan a los Indios en sus Tropelias?” El Comercio, March 21, 1964.
13. La Tribuna, March 11, 1964.
14. El Comercio, March 13, 1964.
15. El Expreso, March 13, 1964.
16. Ibid., March 18, 1964.
17. Authors’ interviews in Lima, September 1976; military historian Victor Villanueva also attributes International Petroleum (IPC) with being the supplier of the napalm used by the Peruvian air force against Campa Indian villages during the CIA’s counterinsurgency campaign against MIR in 1965. According to Villanueva, IPC was eager to show its loyalty to the government in hopes of staving off pressure on Belaúnde to nationalize IPC’s oil properties (Michael F. Brown and Eduardo Fernández, War of Shadows: The Struggle for Utopia in the Peruvian Amazon [Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1991], pp. 113–14).
18. El Expresso, March 20, 1964; La Tribuna, March 20, 21, 1964; El Comercio, March 21, 1964.
19. Photographs taken on March 22, 1964, in the authors’ possession.
20. El Expreso, March 21, 1964.
21. New York Times, January 7, 1964, p. 5.
22. Cable, air force attaché, U.S. Embassy (Lima) to Chief of Staff, U.S. Air Force, March 31, 1964, National Security File, Country File—Peru, folder: Peru—Cables Vol. 6 (11/63–11/65), Lyndon B. Johnson Library.
23. State Department Memorandum, briefing “Possible Points for Discussion with the New Peruvian Ambassador,” February 7, 1964, White House Central File, Confidential File, Box 11, folder CO234—Peru, in ibid.
24. Sherman Kent (Central Intelligence Agency, Office of National Estimates), Special Memorandum No. 19–65: “Prospects in Peru,” July 29, 1965, in National Security File, Country File—Peru, folder: Peru—Cables Vol. 6 (11/63–11/65), in ibid.
25. Philip Agee, Inside the Company (Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin, 1975), pp. 268–69.
26. Ibid., p. 313.
27. Cable, American Embassy—Lima [Ambassador Jones] to Secretary of State [Dean Rusk], February 4, 1964, National Security File, Country File—Peru, folder: Peru—Cables Vol. 3 (11/63–11/65), Johnson Library.
28. Intelligence Information Cable [“sanitized” copy], Central Intelligence Agency, February 10, 1964, “Subject: Plans of the MIR for Revolutionary Action,” in ibid.
29. Agee, Inside the Company, p. 321.
30. Brown and Fernández, War of Shadows, p. 93.
31. La Prensa, March 31, 1964.
32. Authors’ interviews with L. Fletcher Prouty, former Defense Department liaison with the CIA, Washington, D.C., August 1977.
33. Authors’ interviews with former U.S. government official and other confidential sources, Washington, D.C., 1977. Reports of the CIA support for the coup were also heard during interviews in Peru and in Bolivia in 1976, when the authors visited Iquitos, Pucallpa, Lima, Cuzco, the Lake Titicaca region, and La Paz.
34. Cole Blasier, “The United States and the Revolution,” in Beyond the Revolution: Bolivia Since 1952, ed. James M. Mally and Richard Thorn (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1971), pp. 93–95.
35. Authors’ interviews with L. Fletcher Prouty.
36. The Council for Latin America took over the Latin American Information Committee’s extensive book program, partly financed by foundations serving as CIA conduits. This program became an important aspect of Johnson’s International Education Program, which David also advised for propaganda efforts in Latin America and Vietnam. National Security File, Name File, David Rockefeller folder, Johnson Library.
37. David Rockefeller, “What Private Enterprise Means to Latin America,” Foreign Affairs, April 1, 1966, p. 408.
38. John D. Rockefeller 3rd, “Opening Address to the Conference on Subsistence and Peasant Economies,” February 28, 1965, in Subsistence Agriculture and Economic Development, ed. Clifton R. Wharton, Jr. (Chicago: Aldine, 1969), p. 3.
39. José L. Vasquez Calzada, El Desbalance Entre Recursos de Poblacion en Puerto Rico (San Juan: School of Medicine, University of Puerto Rico, November 1966), p. 8.
40. See J. M. Stycos, “Female Sterilization in Puerto Rico,” Eugenics Quarterly 1, no. 1 (1954), pp. 3–9; and Harriet Presser, Sterilization and Fertility Decline in Puerto Rico, Population Monograph Series 13 (Berkeley, Calif.: California Institute of International Studies, 1973).
41. Mario C. Vasquez, “The Interplay Between Power and Wealth,” and Henry F. Dobyns and Mario C. Vasquez, “The Transformation of Manors into Producers’ Cooperatives,” reports for Comparative Studies of Cultural Change, Department of Anthropology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1964. Comparative Studies of Cultural Change was the formal name of Cornell’s social science research program in Peru, which was financed through the U.S. Agency for International Development under contract AID/csd-296 between AID and Cornell.
42. By 1966, Holmberg’s Vicos project, begun in 1952 with grants from the Carnegie Corporation as part of the already established Cornell Peru Project, had received $621,772 through the Agency for International Development’s research division under contract AID/csd-296. See State Department, Agency for International Development, Contract Service Division, AID-Financed University Contracts (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1962–1967). The Vicos project’s Pentagon ties were revealed by Holmberg’s successor, William F. Whyte, in 1969 in “The Role of the U.S. Professor in Developing Countries,” American Sociologist 4, no. 1 February 1969, p. 27n. Whyte reported that in February 1966, the year Holmberg died, “A barrage of attacks in one Lima newspaper, aimed particularly at the indirect link of our Peruvian associates with the Pentagon, led us to return the unexpended balance (more than $100,000), even though we felt we needed the money more than the Pentagon did.” Writing two years earlier, in 1967, for the quarterly magazine of the Milbank Memorial Fund (headed by SIL-funder Sam Milbank), Whyte had listed the Advanced Research Projects Agency among the funding institutions, but did not reveal that ARPA was an arm of the Department of Defense. See Whyte, “Cultural Change and Stress in Rural Peru,” Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly 44, no. 4. If the Cornell program was still receiving Pentagon mon
ey in 1967, as Whyte reported then, its financial ties may have extended beyond the February 1966 termination date given by Whyte in 1969.
43. H. F. Waterhouse, A Time to Build (Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1964), p. 11.
44. House Appropriations Committee, Defense Appropriations Hearings for 1965, Vol. 14 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1965), p. 138.
45. Waterhouse, A Time to Build, p. 11.
46. Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for International Security Affairs, Military Assistance Facts (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Defense, 1969), p. 21.
47. U.S. Agency for International Development, Statistics and Reports Division, Operations Report as of June 30, 1964, and June 30, 1965.
48. “The IPA Faculty,” IPA Review, January 1967, p. 16.
49. Irving Louis Horowitz, ed., The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1974), pp. 4, 184.
50. “Working Paper,” December 5, 1964, Document No. 3, in ibid., pp. 56–59.
51. Washington Star, 1965, p. 1.
52. Horowitz, The Rise and Fall of Project Camelot, pp. 50–51.
53. House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Internal Organization and Movements, 89th Cong., 1st sess., Winning the Cold War: The U.S. Ideological Offensive, Hearings (July 8, 13, and 14, and August 7, 1965), published in House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 89th Cong., 1st sess., Behavioral Sciences and National Security, Report 4, December 6, 1965 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1965).
54. E. W. Kenworthy, “Unit at Cornell Aided by Conduits,” New York Times, February 27, 1967, p. 1.
31: MISTAKEN IDENTITIES
1. Quoted in James C. Hefley and Marti Hefley, Dawn over Amazonia (Waco, Tex.: Word Books, 1972), pp. 113–14.
2. Quoted in ibid., p. 115.
3. Quoted in ibid., p. 35.
4. Matthew Huxley and Cornell Capa, Farewell to Eden (New York: Harper & Row, 1964), pp. 142–44.
5. This story was repeated often in interviews about SIL’s work throughout Latin America. SIL itself occasionally referred to this social tension. See Jerry Long, Amazonia Reborn (Portland, Ore.: Multnomah Press, 1970), p. 23.
6. W. C. Townsend, Memorandum, July 21, 1964, Townsend Archives.
7. W. C. Townsend to Ben Elson, January 15, 1964, in ibid.
8. David Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empires? The Wycliffe Bible Translators in Latin America (London: Zed Press, 1982), p. 132.
9. Eugene Loos to W. C. Townsend, April 24, 1964, Townsend Archives.
10. Chief Tariri to W. C. Townsend, July 7, 1964, in ibid.
11. W.C. Townsend to Ethel Wallis, August 7, 1964, in ibid.
12. Harold Key to W. C. Townsend, April 14, 1964, in ibid.
13. W. C. Townsend to Kenneth Watters, January 14, 1964; W. C. Townsend to Marion Slocum, March 16, 1964; W. C. Townsend to Harold Key, February 7, 1964, in ibid.
14. William Cameron Townsend to Ben Elson, September 3, 1964, in ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Eugene Loos to W. C. Townsend, September 5, 1964, in ibid.
17. Quoted in Jamie Buckingham, Into the Glory (Plainfield, N.J.: Logos, 1974), pp. 115–17.
18. W. C. Townsend to Ben Elson, September 3, 1964, Townsend Archives.
19. Translation magazine (Wycliffe Bible Translators), Winter 1966, p. 9.
20. Victor Marchetti and John Marks, The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1974), p. 124.
21. Armando Artola, ¡Subversion! (Lima: Editorial Juridica, 1976), p. 22.
22. New York Times, October 11, 1964, p. 128.
23. Marchetti and Marks, The CIA and the Cult, p. 124.
24. Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empires?, pp. 150–51.
25. The CIA provided one of King Hurley’s larger “Twin” Helio models for Montgomery and Prouty’s use on a no-cost basis. The Twin was flown to New Orleans on May 15 from the CIA’s Special Warfare Center at Eglin Air Force base in Florida, where Montgomery had worked in 1961 after his return from the Congo. Montgomery and Prouty flew it from there to Peru and back during the last two weeks of May, hoping to commence a joint manufacturing venture with the Peruvians. (See Memorandum, L. F. Prouty to L. L. Bollinger, May 5, 1964. Copy in the authors’ possession.) SIL’s Jerry Elder had a similar idea in a December 6, 1960, proposal to Bollinger, who replied with enthusiasm on January 8, 1961. Elder was acting as an agent for Helio with Peru’s General Van Oordt.
26. Marchetti and Marks, The CIA and the Cult, pp. 124–25.
27. Norman Gall, “The Legacy of Che Guevara,” Commentary, December 1967.
28. Michael F. Brown and Eduardo Fernández, War of Shadows: The Struggle for Utopia in the Peruvian Amazon (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1991), p. 114.
29. Cited in Richard Gott, Guerrilla Movements in Latin America (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1971), pp. 416–17, 420.
30. Stoll, Fishers of Men or Founders of Empires?, p. 150.
31. Gall, “Legacy of Che Guevara.”
32. Ministerio de Guerra, Las Guerrillas en el Perú (Lima, 1966), pp. 60–64.
33. Brown and Fernández, War of Shadows, p. 84. Belaúnde claimed Guevara wore his black beret even in the tropical Amazonian heat.
34. New York Times, October 9, 1965 (supplement), p. 3.
32: POISONS OF THE AMAZON
1. Nicole Maxwell, Witch Doctor’s Apprentice (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961), pp. 319–23.
2. Ibid.
3. Russell Warren Howe, “Asset Unwittingly: Covering the World for the CIA,” More, May 1978, p. 25; John M. Crewdson and Joseph B. Treaster, “Worldwide Propaganda Network Built and Controlled by the C.I.A.,” New York Times, December 26, 1977, p. 37.
4. David Atlee Phillips, The Night Watch: Twenty-five Years of Peculiar Service (New York: Atheneum, 1977), p. 133.
5. David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, The Espionage Establishment (New York: Random House, 1967), p. 137n.
6. Interview with confidential source, July 1977.
7. John D. Marks, The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate” (New York: Times Books, 1979), pp. 112–13.
8. Maxwell, Witch Doctor’s Apprentice, p. 324.
9. Interviews with a former ANDCO employee and a former anthropologist in the area, 1977.
10. Gordon Thomas, Journey into Madness: The True Story of Secret CIA Mind Control and Medical Abuse (New York: Bantam Books, 1989), p. 251.
11. “Brazil,” Report for the President, SR-17, November, 1948, Central Intelligence Agency, pp. 29–30, Harry S. Truman Library.
12. JAARS planned to purchase older Helios from the Peruvian army in 1964 with commissions from sales of newer Helios that SIL, acting as Lynn Bollinger’s Helio agent, would sell to the Peruvians. “The three [Peruvian Army] planes could be readied for Brazil in short order,” JAARS’s Bernie May assured Cam. Memorandum, Bernie May to W. C. Townsend, February 12, 1964, Re: Helio Sale, Attached: Memorandum from May to Eugene Loos, February 11, 1964, Townsend Archives.
13. Dale Kietzman to James Wilson et al., October 28, 1964, in ibid.
14. Ibid.
15. “Brazil Builds First All Weather Cross Continent Road,” Brazil Bulletin, January 1968, p. 3.
16. Memorandum re: Development in Amazona and Acre, Dale Kietzman to James Wilson et al., October 29, 1964, Townsend Archives.
17. “Emphasis on Brazil: The Awakening Giant of South America,” Translation magazine (Wycliffe Bible Translators), Winter 1966.
18. Dale Kietzman, “Indians and Cultural Areas of Twentieth Century Brazil,” in Indians of Brazil in the Twentieth Century, ed. Janice H. Hopper (Washington, D.C.: Institute for Cross Cultural Research, 1967), pp. 16, 43. The word warlike was attached to the Mayorunas and Cintas Largas; wild groups was used to describe Indians on the Paraguay side of the Paraná River.
19. See Darcy Ribeiro, A Política Indigenista Brasileira (Rio de Janeiro: Minesterio da Agricultura Serviço de Informa
ção o Agricola [Atvalidade Agrâria, 1], 1962), pp. 38–39.
20. Kietzman, “Indians and Cultural Areas,” pp. 7, 12, 50.
21. Ribeiro, A Política Indigenista Brasileira, pp. 38–39.
22. Kietzman, “Indians and Cultural Areas,” pp. 4, 6.
23. The Nation, February 27, 1967.
24. Rex D. Hopper to Johan Galtung, April 5, 1965, National Security File, Agency File, Box 19, folder: Defense: Project Camelot, Lyndon B. Johnson Library.
25. Marks, Search for the “Manchurian Candidate,” p. 109.
26. Richard Helms, Deputy Director for Plans, to John McCone, Director of Central Intelligence, June 9, 1964, “eyes only—secret” memorandum (declassified November 13, 1975) on “Sensitive Research Programs” in Senate Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare and Subcommittee on Administrative Practice and Procedure of the Committee on the Judiciary, Biomedical and Behavioral Research 1974, Joint Hearings on Human-Use Experimentation Programs of the Department of Defense and Central Intelligence Agency (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1976), pp. 970–72.
27. Maxwell, Witch Doctors Apprentice, pp. 329–30.
28. Thomas, Journey into Madness, p. 251.
29. Marks, Search for the “Manchurian Candidate,” p. 203.
30. Ibid., p. 113.
31. Ibid., p. 62.
32. A CIA linguistics contract with Professor Anthony Oettinger was approved by the Harvard Corporation and confirmed by Vice President L. G. Wiggins and Dean Franklin Ford in 1968. (See Memorandum, L. G. Wiggins to Franklin L. Ford, September 16, 1968, reprinted in How Harvard Rules [Cambridge, Mass.: The Old Mole, 1969], p. 47.) Years later, when Harvard Medical School’s Dr. Martin T. Orne’s hypnosis experiments were revealed to have been funded in 1962 by two CIA fronts—Adolf Berle’s Human Ecology Fund and Boston’s Scientific Engineering Institute—Harvard officials tried to protect One’s identity as an alleged unwitting asset. (See Harvard Crimson, Editorial, February 11, 1978.)
33. Richard Evans Schultes to John C. Cady (Point IV Country Director for Colombia, headquartered at the U.S. Embassy in Bogotá), May 3, 1952, Rubber Investigations Files, Records of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Department of Agriculture, National Archives.
