by Orr Kelly
Lehman, Navy Secretary John F., Jr., 110, 129, 137, 138, 140, 144, 186, 197, 217
Lemoore Naval Air Station, 103, 130, 156, 209
Lenox, G. W. (“Corky”), 49, 78, 98, 101, 128, 136, 147, 214, 219
LEX fence, 149
Libya, 135
Libya, attack on, 182, 189; Breast, Rear Adm. Jerry, 182; A-6 bombers, 181; A-7 light bombers, 181; Bengazi, 184; Benina Airbase, 184; Benson, Chief Petty Officer Kurt, 181; Col. Muammar Qaddafi, 184; F-111 bombers, 183; F-14 fighters, 181; F/A-18s’ role, 184; Ferguson, Capt. R. H., 181; Gulf of Sidra, 183; HARM missiles, 184; Jones, Lt. Comdr. Dave, 185; Kelso, Adm. Frank, 183; Line of death, 183; Lockard, Capt. John (“Spider”), 185, 189; Tripoli, 184; U.S.S. Coral Sea, 181; U.S.S. America, 181
Lockard, Capt. J. A. (“Spider”), 147, 223
Loss of consciousness, 168
LTV, 46, 53, 107; files protest, 55
Machine gun, 17, 74
Malan, Adolph (“Sailor”), 160
Marines, 134, 140, 158, 180
Maritime Strategy, 197
Martin, Lt. Dave (“Red Bone”), 176
Matlock, Comdr. John, 220, 222
McCullough, AMS-1 Larry A., 217
McDonald, Adm. Wesley L. (“Wes”), 115, 130, 218
McDonnell Douglas, 70, 101, 106, 110, 128, 138, 144, 149, 205, 211
McDonnell, Sanford N. (“Sandy”), 50, 144
McManus, Charles J., 213
McNamara, Defense Secretary Robert S., 7
Meatball, 153
Mechanical backup control, 90
Meyers, Charles, advocates lightweight fighter, 14
Michaelis, Adm. Frederick (“Mike”), 36, 65, 89, 213, 214
Midway Island, 32
Miller, Lt. Kevin, 220
Miramar Naval Air Station, 120
Missiles, Soviet, AS-4 Kitchen, 3
Missiles, U.S., Cruise missile, 5; Phoenix, 5, 130; Sidewinder, 5, 87, 154, 161; Sparrow, 5, 71, 119, 161; Walleye, 5
Mitchell, Brig. Gen. William (“Billy”), 25
Moorer, Adm. Thomas, 5
Morane-Saulnier (World War I aircraft), 17
Murray, Russell II, 107, 127, 218
Nagumo, Vice Adm. Chuichi, 31
Naval Air Systems Command (NAVAIR), 4, 5, 8, 78, 143
Navy Fighter Weapons School (Top Gun), 119, 173
Newman, Gerhard, 114
Nighttime landing, 153
Norfolk Naval Air Station, 206
Norris, Lt. Comdr. Bob, 222
North Vietnam, 165
Northrop Corp., 43, 70, 95, 101, 118, 144, 149, 151, 213; files suit, 129
Norway, 189
O’Neill, House Speaker Thomas (“Tip”), Jr., 107
Olds, Robin, 165
Operational Test and Evaluation Force (COMOPTEVFOR), 136
Operational Test and Evaluation, 135
Operational flight trainer, 157
Ostfriesland sunk by bombers, 26
Packard, David, 13
Partington, Rear Adm. James W, 156, 220
Patuxent River Naval Air Station, 108
Pearl Harbor, 27, 187
Pensacola, 22
Perkins, Marine Capt. S. T. (“Perk”), 113
Petersen, Vice Adm. Forrest S., 107, 79, 215
Physiology of flight, 206
Pickering, Frank E., 99
Piddle pack, 176
Pilot Training Manual, 221
Point Mugu Naval Air Station, 120
Politics, 105, 139
Post, marine Lt. Gary, 109
Pratt & Whitney, 49, 96, 100, 106, 111
Prince of Wales sunk, 31
Programmable radar, 69, 215
Radar, 71; and gun, diagram, 74
Rainkie, Capt. Dean, 223
Range of F/A-18, 139, 172, 185; limited, 64, 137
Rapp, George, 100; 216
Reliability and maintainability, 65, 101, 200
Repulse sunk, 31
Revolt of the admirals, 38
Riemer, Burton A., 106, 108, 110, 216, 217
Rodenbaugh, William (“Bill”), 93, 216
Roll rate problem, 124
Salisbury, Robert L., 215
Schoultz, Vice Adm. Robert F. (“Dutch”), 112, 136, 217
Sea Control Ships, 11
Sea of Norway, 3, 189
Senate Appropriations Committee, 14
Senate Armed Services Committee, 13
Seymour, Vice Adm. Richard M., 131, 198, 219
Shepherd, Lt. Comdr. Bill, 179, 221
Sherman, Adm. Forrest P., 38
Sherwood, Aviation Fire Control Chief Randall J., 222
Ships, Japanese Navy, Akagi, 30; Hiryu, 30; Kaga, 30; Musashi, 33; Shokaku, 30; Soryu, 30; Yamato, 29, 33; Zuikaku, 30
Ships, U.S. Navy, U.S.S. America, 89, 181; Antietam, 40; Birmingham, 20; Constellation, 9, 135, 162, 174, 187; Coral Sea, 154, 180, 181, 183, 205; Enterprise, 4, 27, 79; Forrestal, 41; Hancock, 40; Hornet, 27; Independence, 186; Kennedy, 186; Langley, 25; Lexington, 26; Pennsylvania, 21; Ranger, 26, 187; Saratoga, 26; United States, 37 Valley Forge, 41; Vinson, 11; Wasp, 27; York-town, 27
Shows, marine Maj. Rick, 166
Simulators, 90, 157
Situational awareness (SA), 165, 209
Snyder, Donald, 51, 150, 214, 220
South Korea, 200
Spain, 199
Spangenberg, George, 59, 214
Sperry Corp.’s Flight Simulation Division, 157
Stanwood, First Class Metalsmith Rory, 223
Steinman, Lt. Victor, 209, 210, 215
Strike Warfare Center (Strike U), 186
Strohsahl, Rear Adm. George, Jr., 140, 141, 144, 147, 150, 219
Stuart, Lt. Comdr. Jack, 222
Sullivan, Lt. Steven, 220
Supercarriers, 11
Switzerland, 200
Taranto, British attack on, 28
Thayer, Paul, 47
Thayer, Lt. Comdr. Rich, 222
Thompson, Robert H., 45, 83 119, 211 215
Tiger team, 144, 147
Tkach, Mike, 76, 170, 215
Tomcat-Hornet team, 178
Tripoli, 183
Turbofan engine, 98
Turbojet engine, 98
Tyler, Marine Capt. Doug, 156
U.S. Navy, future role of, 197
Up-chit, 206
Vaughn, Comdr. Tom (“Smooth Dog”), 176, 188, 221
Velocity vector, 87, 156
Vertical tails, cracks in, 143, 145, 146, 149; 220
VFA 25 Fist of the Fleet, or Fisties, 174
VFA 125 Rough Raiders, 156, 159
VFA 113 Stingers, 174
VFA 106 Gladiators, 159
VFA 132 Privateers, 222
VFA-137 Kestrels, 222
Vietnam War, 9, 42, 136, 186
Villar, Marine S.Sgt. Howard, 222
VMFA 314 Black Knights, the first squadron of Hornets, 173
VMFA 451 222
Vortex, 149
VX-4 Evaluators, 120, 171
VX-5 Vampires, 171
Waldner, J. C, 111, 217
War with Soviet Union, naval role, 189; air force AWACS, 191; American submarines, 190; Backfire bombers, 192; Badger bombers, 192; Bear bombers, 192; Dougherty, Rear Adm. William A., Jr., 188, 192; E-2C Hawkeye, 191; EmCon, 190; F/A-18, 192; HARM, Harpoon and Maverick missiles, 193; Iceland, 189; Kola Peninsula, 189; marines, 190; MiG-31 Foxhound, 195; Northern Fleet, 192; Phoenix missiles, 193; Sea of Japan, 196; Sea of Okhotsk, 196; SU-27 Flanker, 195
War Plan Orange, 32
Warsaw Pact, 197
Water survival course, 206
Weapons Tactics Trainer, 157
Weaver, Capt. John C, 130, 141, 219
Weight growth, 53
Weinberger, Defense Secretary Caspar W, 144
Welch, Lt. Rodger, 178
Westinghouse, 70
Whitehouse, Arch, 19
Wilcox, Harvey, 55, 111, 213
Willoughby, Willis (“Will”), 65, 78, 98, 99, 130, 175, 2
00, 214
Woolsey, Navy Undersecretary R. James, 126, 218
World War I, 18
Wright, Orville, 19
Yale University, 23
Yamamoto, Adm. Isoroku, 29
Zeppelin, Count Frederick von, 23
Zumwalt, Adm. Elmo, 8, 10
From a Dark Sky
For my brother, Jack Kelly
CONTENTS
Preface
PART I
Birth of the Air Commandos
1
The Day Thursday Came on Sunday
2
The Reluctant Warriors
3
A “Grandiose Scheme”
4
Deep in Enemy Territory
5
Aerial Invasion of Germany
PART 2
Behind the Lines in Europe
6
The Carpetbaggers Are Born
7
Enemy Territory—in the Dark
8
D-day and Beyond
9
Jack of All Trades
10
Action in the South
11
The Final Days
PART 3
Korea and Beyond
12
Drawdown and Rebuilding
13
Rebirth and Decline
PART 4
The Longest War
14
They Called It Jungle Jim
15
Leading the Way
16
Death From the Sky
PART 5
Through the Looking Glass
17
The Secret War
18
Butterflies and Ravens
19
The Third War
PART 6
Son Tay and the Mayaguez
20
Destination: Hanoi
21
“Utter Chaos” at Tang Island
PART 7
Hostage Rescue Efforts
22
Operation Rice Bowl
23
Back to Teheran
24
Not Quite Ready
25
Panama—Getting It Together
PART 8
New Challenges
26
The Gulf War and Beyond
Image Gallery
Glossary
Sources
Index
Preface
Special operations has ranged in size, over the years, from a small part of the bigger Air Force down to a virtually invisible part. But whether they called themselves Air Commandos or Carpetbaggers, Ravens or Butterflies, Nimrods or Spectres, whenever the going got tough, the special operators made their mark. They were the ones called on to do the unusual jobs—often the “impossible” jobs—that other Air Force units couldn’t, or wouldn’t, do, whether it involved flying low, slow, and alone in the dark behind enemy lines or introducing unique new weapons such as the fixed-wing gunship or the Pave Low helicopter.
Two things have struck me most in my research on the half-century history of Air Force special operations. One is how remarkably rich and varied that history has been. The other is how the history of special operations has so often been the story, not of groups or wings or squadrons, but of resourceful, innovative, and often strikingly courageous individuals or very small groups of individuals.
Almost always the story quickly focuses down to the exploits of individuals—whether it is the extraordinary adventure of John Carney, alone in the dark Iranian desert preparing a landing site for the attempt to rescue American hostages from Teheran in 1980, or Bob Leonik, thinking of himself as an orchestra conductor as he piloted his helicopter and its small crew into Iraq to begin the Desert Storm offensive a decade later, or Ron Terry, bucking the opposition of the brass and using his own credit card to get the fixed-wing gunship into combat.
Unfortunately, this volume can give credit to only a small number of the many men who have made their mark on special operations over the years. I have chosen to highlight the accomplishments of a few to give the reader a sense of the accomplishments of the many who have also served with distinction.
Because their units are small and their assignments special and often very secret, the special operators have never fit comfortably into the bureaucratic structure of the big Air Force. Traditionally, a career in special operations has been one of the surest ways to avoid becoming a general. That tradition may be changing now, and perhaps that change is to be regretted. The history of special operations offers plentiful evidence that those who are best at this special work are often those who don’t aspire to become generals and are genuinely surprised on those rare occasions when they find stars on their shoulders.
Most military histories focus on the actions of the generals because they are the ones who make the large decisions and have the most influence on the course of events. The reader will find this history different. Much of what special operators do is done by enlisted men and relatively junior officers, and this is their story.
The reader may be especially intrigued to read of the little-known combat controllers, or special tactics teams, as they are now called. Trained to swim like a Navy SEAL, fight like a member of the Army’s elite Delta Force, and parachute with the Rangers, they also have the special skill to set up and run a busy airfield in the dark behind enemy lines. Recently, they have taken on the added responsibility of caring for the wounded and injured during airfield assault operations. Most of the combat controllers and all of the pararescuemen, or PJs, as they are called, are enlisted men.
Probably to the discomfort of many of those mentioned in this book, I have followed the Air Force practice of using the words air commando as a kind of convenient blanket term for all of special operations. But many men identify themselves with their own specialty rather than the broader blanket term. A Carpetbagger considers himself a Carpetbagger, a Raven considers himself a Raven, and a Nimrod prides himself on being a Nimrod.
The Carpetbaggers and the Ravens have their own separate reunions. The Nimrods attend the annual air commando reunion but tend to remain off by themselves. And even the Air Commandos of World War II, who gave their name to the concept, segregate themselves into two groups—the 1st Air Commandos, who served in Burma, and the 2d and 3d Air Commandos, who came later and served as more traditional military units in the Pacific.
I have tried to keep the use of military designations and acronyms from being any more burdensome to the reader than it has to be, inserting explanations—or translations—of military terminology wherever necessary.
Some confusion is unavoidable, however. A prime example is the Douglas Invader aircraft. Known in World War II as the A-26, it was called the B-26 during the late 1940s and the 1950s, only to revert to the A-26 designation during the war in Southeast Asia. It was always basically the same plane—not to be confused, of course, with the World War II–era Martin B-26 Marauder. I have used the designation current at the time. There are other terms, unfortunately, which have dual meanings. The acronym CAS, for example, stood for Controlled American Source—a term for Central Intelligence Agency operations in Laos—but also means “close air support.” For the reader still in doubt despite context and explanatory notes, I have included an extensive glossary.
For help in research for this volume, I owe a debt of gratitude to a number of people.
Mrs. Yvonne Kincaid, librarian at the Air Force history center at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C., guided me through the voluminous microfilm and paper records on file there. My research there was supplemented by a visit to the Air Force Historical Research Agency library at Maxwell Air Force Base, Montgomery, Alabama, where the originals of many of the records duplicated at Bolling, plus additional records, are available. Essie Gay Roberts was most helpful during my visit to Maxwell.
Herb Mason and his assistant, Clay McCutchan, at the Air Force Special Operations Command
history office at Hurlburt Field, Florida, at first apologized for having so little material—and then began pulling detailed reports off their shelves going back to World War II. Of particular value were reports and original documents saved and collected by Col. Robert Fish, a commander of the Carpetbaggers in Europe during World War II. Fish and his neighbor, Col. J. W. Bradbury, USAF retired, who served with the Carpetbaggers and has collected a good deal of information about their contacts with the resistance force, were particularly helpful during interviews in San Antonio, Texas, where they now live.
Another invaluable source of anecdotal information was the past issues of the Air Commando Association Newsletter, in which many special operators had told their personal stories.
For my account of the operations of the Air Resupply and Communications Service in the 1950s I am indebted to Carl H. Bernhardt, Jr., of Cheshire, Connecticut, who sent me a complete file of the Air Resupply and Communications Association’s newsletter on a computer diskette.
Air Force public affairs officers at Hurlburt and Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque, New Mexico, were particularly helpful in setting up interviews. At Hurlburt, I had the help of Shirley Sikes, Lt. Sean McKenna, and Sandy Henry, who keep their office running. At Kirtland, a week of interviews was ably managed by Senior Airman Jim Fisher, whose performance far exceeded his pay grade.
For an insight into what it is like to do the kind of flying special operations crews routinely do, I am indebted to Lt. Col. Michael E. Homan, Maj. Robert Abernathy, and Capt. Ed Meyer and their crews. With them, in a series of flights, I spent more than nine hours in the air in the Pave Low helicopter, flying through the New Mexico mountains in the dark at two hundred feet, refueling from an HC-130 Combat Shadow tanker—again in the dark—and flying formation and landing at rough landing zones in the mountains with the aid of night-vision goggles.
I am indebted to MSgt. Timothy Hadrych, with whom I flew at Kirtland, for permitting me to use the remarkable pictures he took during the rescue of Lt. Devon Jones during Desert Storm.
Particular thanks are due to Col. William Hudspeth, Chair of the Department of Special Operations Forces at the Air University at Maxwell Air Force Base, for reviewing my manuscript for accuracy. The opinions expressed and any remaining errors are, of course, my responsibility.
