10 For example, epidemiological studies: David T. Courtright, Dark Paradise: A History of Opiate Addiction in America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001), p. 36; O. Marshall, “The Opium Habit in Michigan,” Michigan State Board of Health Annual Report 6 (1878): 63–73; Charles Warrington Earle, “The Opium Habit: A Statistical and Clinical Lecture,” Chicago Medical Review 2 (1880): 442–46; Charles Warrington Earle, “Opium-Smoking in Chicago,” Chicago Medical Journal and Examiner 52 (1886): 104–12; J. M. Hull, “The Opium Habit,” Iowa State Board of Health Biennial Report 3 (1885): 535–45.
11 A survey of Boston’s drugstores: Courtright, Dark Paradise, p. 38; and Virgil G. Eaton, “How the Opium Habit Is Acquired,” Popular Science Monthly 33 (1888): 663–67.
12 During this period: Alas, criminalizing these agents in the decades since has not had nearly the success that reformers once hoped for, and substance abuse continues to present global health problems of gargantuan proportions. See David F. Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999); Howard Markel, “When Teenagers Abuse Prescription Drugs, the Fault May Be the Doctor’s,” New York Times, December 27, 2005, p. D7; and David F. Musto, Drugs: A Documentary History (New York: New York University Press, 2002).
Chapter 1. Young Freud
1 On a June morning in 1884: Karl Baedekker, Baedekker’s Southern Germany and Austria, 7th ed. (Leipzig: Karl Baedeker, 1891), pp. 188–89; Illustriertes Landtmann Extrablatt, no. 5, 2007 (Vienna: Cafetiers Familie, Querfeld, 2007); and Café Landtmann website, www.cafe-wien.at/ldt-start_ENG_HTML.html (accessed May 4, 2010).
2 Freud had been studying: Sigmund’s given name was Sigismund Schlomo Freud, but he soon dropped the middle name, after his paternal grandfather, and formally adopted Sigmund by the time he matriculated into the University of Vienna, in 1872. Peter Gay, Freud: A Life for Our Time (New York: W. W. Norton, 1998), pp. 4–5.
3 One of the most famous: Erna Lesky, The Vienna Medical School of the 19th Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976); Hortense Koller Becker, “Carl Koller and Cocaine,” Psychoanalytic Quarterly 32 (1963): 309–73; Sherwin B. Nuland, The Doctors’ Plague: Germs, Childbed Fever and the Strange Story of Ignac Semmelweis (New York: W. W. Norton, 2004); and Irvine Loudon, The Tragedy of Childbed Fever (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
4 It was a line: Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, vol. 2, 1901–1919 (New York: Basic Books, 1955), pp. 13–14; in the same courtyard, there now is a bust of Freud bearing the Sophocles inscription. The bust’s placement was arranged by Ernest Jones and unveiled in 1955.
5 Popular and pretty: Louis Breger, Freud: Darkness in the Midst of Vision (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2000), pp. 55–56.
6 In his later life: Gay, Freud, pp. 6–9; quote is from p. 6.
7 Yet even as a child: Eli Zaretsky, Secrets of the Soul: A Social and Cultural History of Psychoanalysis (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), pp. 26–27; and M. Huttler, “Jewish Origins of Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams,” Journal of Psychology and Judaism 23 (1999): 5–48. The inscribed Pentateuch is on display at the Sigmund Freud Museum in Vienna.
8 A widow deeply concerned: For example, Sigmund warns Martha not to listen too closely to her “mama’s complaints against him and their relationship,” Sigmund Freud to Martha Bernays, February 21, 1883, Ernst L. Freud, ed., Letters of Sigmund Freud (New York: Basic Books, 1960), pp. 37–40 (Letter 13).
9 “Now and again I see a girl”: Freud to Martha, March 31, 1885, Freud, Letters, pp. 138–39 (Letter 60); quote is from p. 139.
10 “Defending my case valiantly”: Freud to Martha, August 23, 1883, Freud, Letters, pp. 44–47 (Letter 16); quote is from p. 44.
11 “the things that go”: Freud to Martha, June 6, 1885, Freud, Letters, pp. 148–49 (Letter 67); quote is from p. 148.
12 “I am preparing myself”: Freud to William Knöpfmacher, August 6, 1878, Freud, Letters, pp. 6–7 (Letter 2).
13 Once there, he would enjoy: Lesky, Vienna; Ernest Jones, The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud, vol. 1, 1856–1900 (New York: Basic Books, 1953), pp. 36–77.
14 But the cause, Dr. Osler explained: “The Master Word in Medicine,” in William Osler, Aequanimitas and Other Addresses (Philadelphia: P. Blakiston’s Sons and Co., 1904), pp. 363–88.
15 Failures of this magnitude: William F. Bynum, Science and the Practice of Medicine in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994); Lesky, Vienna, pp. 228–42; and Henry Sigerist, The Great Doctors: A Biographical History of Medicine (New York: W. W. Norton, 1933), pp. 303–11.
16 Some have suggested: Peter Gay, for example, intuits a sense of discontent over both the research and with Claus. See Gay, Freud, pp. 30–31. The main project Sigmund worked on under Claus appeared as S. Freud, Beobachtungen über Gestaltung und feineren Bau der als Hoden beschriebenen Lappenorgane des Aals (Observations on the Formation and More Delicate Structure of Lobe-Shaped Organs of the Eel Described as Testicles) (Vienna, 1877).
17 When Brücke, the son of a painter: Brücke maintained an interest in art and later in life wrote treatises on the theory of pictorial art, the physiology of colors in applied art, and how motion is represented in art.
18 Müller is credited: Bynum, Science; Lesky, Vienna, pp. 228–42; Sigerist, Doctors, pp. 303–11.
19 One afternoon in the late 1870s: Jones, Life, vol. 1, p. 39.
20 Freud also often referred: Ibid., p. 43; see also Gay, Freud, p. 32.
21 The historian Peter Gay: Gay, Freud, p. 30.
22 Anti-Semitism remained: Ibid., p. 27.
23 At the end of each week: A kymograph is a revolving drum with carbon-coated paper wrapped around it. Late-nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century physiologists used kymographs to record data in the laboratory, such as blood pressures, cardiac pulses, muscle contractions, and respirations. A needle connected to a subject’s pulse point, chest, or other area would transmit activity and etch a series of squiggles, spikes, and valleys on the carbon-coated paper. The device was invented by the famed physiologist Carl Ludwig of the University of Leipzig and, formerly, the University of Vienna. See Horace W. Davenport, “Physiology, 1850–1923: The View from Michigan,” Physiologist 25, Supp. 1 (1982): 1–100.
24 A few of his studies: See, for example, Sigmund Freud, Über den Ursprung der Hinteren Nervenwurzeln im Ruckenmark von Amnocoetes (Petromyzon Planeri) (On the Origin of the Posterior Nerve Roots in the Spinal Cord of Amnocoetes [Petromyzon Planeri]), 1877; and Sigmund Freud, Über Spinalganglien und Ruckenmark des Petromyzon (On the Spinal Ganglia and Spinal Cord of the Petromyzon), 1878. For a superb synopsis of Freud’s training and work as a neurologist and neuroanatomist between 1876 and 1896, see Oliver Sacks, “The Other Road: Freud as Neurologist,” in Freud: Conflict and Culture: Essays on His Life, Work, and Legacy, ed. Michael S. Roth (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, in association with the Library of Congress, 1998), pp. 221–34.
25 One had to then carefully “fix”: Freud to Martha, August 23, 1883, Freud, Letters, pp. 44–47 (Letter 16); and Freud to Martha, October 15, 1883, Freud, Letters, pp. 69–70 (Letter 25).
26 Specifically, neurons are independent: Stanley Finger, Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations into Brain Function (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), pp. 43–50.
27 He then craftily submitted: Ibid., pp. 203–05. See also “Early Psycho-Analytic Publications,” in The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, vol. 3, 1893–1899, ed. J. Strachey (London: The Hogarth Press and the Institute of Psychoanalysis, 1962), pp. 223–57.
28 To quote Sigmund’s career self-assessment: Jones, Life, vol. 1, p. 43; Gay, Freud, pp. 36–37. Sigmund took a year of compulsory military service in the Austrian army from late 1879 until the end of 1880.
29 On July 31: Jones, Life, vol. 1, p. 63.
30 Worse, his pedagogic bigotry: Ibid.; N. McLaren and R. V. Thorbeck, “Little-Known Aspec
t of Theodor Billroth’s Work: His Contribution to Musical Theory,” World Journal of Surgery 21 (1997): 569–71; and Theodor Billroth and Johannes Brahms, Letters from a Musical Friendship, ed. Hans Barkan (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1957). Billroth’s anti-Semitic tirades appear most infamously in Theodor Billroth, The Medical Sciences in the German Universities: A Study in the History of Civilization (New York: Macmillan, 1924); and Sherwin B. Nuland, “An Austrian Jew” (Letter to the editor), New York Review of Books, November 17, 1994, available at www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1994/nov/17/an-austrian-jew/ (accessed May 4, 2010).
31 As an example of this behavior: Freud to Martha, January 6, 1885, Freud, Letters, pp. 131–32 (Letter 55); quote is from p. 131.
32 “Whoever needs more”: Lesky, Vienna, p. 280; see pp. 279–90 for a description of Nothnagel’s career.
33 Freud served under Nothnagel: Gay, Freud, p. 42; Jones, Life, vol. 1, p. 64.
34 Freud called him: Jones, Life, vol. 1, p. 65.
35 Dermatologists of the late nineteenth century: Claude Quétel, The History of Syphilis, trans. Judith Braddock and Brian Pike (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 136.
36 He embarked on this clinical course: Jones, Life, vol. 1, pp. 66–67.
37 In the end, Freud did not find dermatology: Freud to Martha, October 5, 1882, Freud, Letters, pp. 30–34 (Letter 12); quote is from p. 33.
38 In late January 1884, Sigmund wrote to his “Fräulein Martha”: Freud to Martha, January 29, 1884, Freud, Letters, pp. 94–96 (Letter 36); quote is from p. 95.
39 “You will certainly be surprised”: Freud to Martha, April 21, 1884, Freud, Letters, pp. 107–09 (Letter 43); quote is from p. 107. See also Freud, Letters, p. 66, footnote 1.
Chapter 2. Young Halsted
1 Late in life: William G. MacCallum, William Stewart Halsted, Surgeon (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1930), pp. 9–10. MacCallum is quoting a series of “long letters” that Halsted wrote in the summer of 1922 about his upbringing and life to William H. Welch as the latter was preparing to write a foreword for an edition of Halsted’s collected papers.
2 Both Mary Louisa and William Jr.: The four Halsted children in birth order were William (born on September 23, 1852), Bertha, Mary Louisa, and Richard. A successful Wall Street stockbroker, Richard was an alcoholic who died in 1915 of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage secondary to esophageal varices and cirrhosis of the liver. J. Scott Rankin, “William Stewart Halsted: A Lecture by Dr. Peter D. Olch,” Annals of Surgery 243 (2006): 418–25.
3 Perhaps the singular exception: MacCallum, Halsted, pp. 4–8; Rankin, “Halsted,” pp. 418–25.
4 Upon acceptance: Quote is from Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Yale College, 1870–1871 (Collections of the Yale University Manuscripts and Archives Collection, New Haven), p. 39; see pp. 38–39 for descriptions of the entrance examinations and curriculum. General information is also from George J. Heuer, “Dr. Halsted,” Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin, Supp. 90 (1952): 1–104; Sherwin B. Nuland, “Medical Science Comes to America: William Stewart Halsted of Johns Hopkins,” Doctors: The Biography of Medicine (New York: Vintage Books, 1988), pp. 386–421; MacCallum, Halsted, pp. 1–28; The Yale Banner, 1870 (Yale University Class Book), vol. 27, no. 1 (New Haven: Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, 1870), pp. 20–23, 40–43; “Commencement Week,” New York Times, July 20, 1870, p. 4; “Commencements,” New York Times, July 22, 1870, p.5. To convert 1870 dollars into 2010 values, I used a formula based on the consumer price index from the economic history—focused website Measuring Worth, www.measuringworth.com/index.html (accessed February 25, 2010).
5 In 1873, he served: One of the best sources of information on Halsted’s student days, as well as his internship and postgraduate training, is a letter Halsted wrote for Welch as the latter prepared an introduction for a collected volume of Halsted’s surgical papers: Halsted to Welch, July 14, 1922, Series II, Notes, Box 31, W. H. Welch Papers, Alan Mason Chesney Archives, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore. See also Edwards A. Park, “Notes of an Interview with Reverend Samuel Bushnell on February 23, 1927,” William Halsted Papers, Alan Mason Chesney Archives, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore.
6 At Yale, William was a member: Even late in life, Halsted drank sparingly, if at all. Nuland, “Medical Science,” pp. 386–88; Samuel J. Crowe, Halsted of Johns Hopkins: The Man and His Men (Springfield, Ill.: C. C. Thomas, 1957); Peter D. Olch, “William Stewart Halsted: Legendary Figure of American Surgery,” Review of Surgery 20 (1963): 83–90; and MacCallum, Halsted, pp. 11–14. With respect to his clothes, Halsted was an avid consumer of expensive and well-tailored suits, shirts, ties, and shoes for the remainder of his life.
7 “He was generally popular”: Halsted was noted to enjoy popular fiction and may have taken a few books out of the local Brothers Library of New Haven during this time; Park, “Notes,” William Halsted Papers, Alan Mason Chesney Archives, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore. This interview with Bushnell, who at one point was Halsted’s roommate, is extensively quoted in Edwards A. Park, “A Pediatrician’s Chance Recollections of Dr. Halsted,” Surgery 32 (1952): 472–78; Heuer, “Dr. Halsted,” pp. 6–7; Peter D. Olch, “William S. Halsted’s New York Period, 1874–1886,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 60 (1966): 495–510; Nuland, “Medical Science Comes to America,” pp. 386–88; Crowe, Halsted of Johns Hopkins; Olch, “Halsted: Legendary Figure,” pp. 83–90; and MacCallum, Halsted, pp. 11–14.
8 “Devoted myself solely”: Halsted to Welch, July 14, 1922, Series II, Notes, Box 31, W. H. Welch Papers, Alan Mason Chesney Archives, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore; and Nuland, “Medical Science,” pp. 386–88.
9 The first volume William mentions: Henry Gray, Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical (Philadelphia: H. C. Lea, 1870).
10 The other book: John Call Dalton, A Treatise on Human Physiology: Designed for the Use of Students and Practitioners of Medicine (Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, 1859); and W. Bruce Fye, The Development of American Physiology: Scientific Medicine in the 19th Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987), pp. 15–53.
11 “Dr. Dalton is one of the few”: The review is credited to Holmes by medical historian W. Bruce Fye in his book Development, p. 30. For the original review, see “Bibliographical Notices: A Treatise on Human Physiology by John Call Dalton,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 60 (1859): 80.
12 So persuasive were Dalton’s powers: S. Weir Mitchell, “Memoir of John Call Dalton, 1825–1889,” Biographical Memoirs (Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1890), pp. 177–85.
13 But there also existed: Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The Development of American Medical Education (New York: Basic Books, 1985).
14 Given the state of medical education: John Call Dalton, History of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in the City of New York: Medical Department of Columbia College (New York: Columbia College, 1888); John Shrady, ed., The College of Physicians and Surgeons of New York and Its Founders, Officers, Instructors, Benefactors, and Alumni, 2 vols. (New York: Lewis Publishing Co., 1904); William H. Rideing, “Medical Education in New York,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, October 1882, pp. 668–80; and Charles F. Gardiner, “Getting a Medical Education in New York City in the Eighteen-Seventies,” Academy Bookman 8, no. 2 (1955): 3–11.
15 The medical students: Gardiner, “Getting a Medical Education,” pp. 3–11; Rideing, “Medical Education,” pp. 668–80; and Olch, “New York Period,” pp. 497–98.
16 Halsted delivered a sterling performance: To convert 1876 dollars into 2010 values, I used a formula based on the consumer price index from the economic history—focused website Measuring Worth, www.measuringworth.com/index.html (accessed February 25, 2010).
17 In such an institutional atmosphere: Charles E. Rosenberg, The Care of Strangers: The Rise of America’s Hospital System (New York: Basic Books, 1987), p. 36; and Howard Markel, “When Hospitals Kep
t Children from Parents,” New York Times, January 1, 2008, p. F6.
18 “[The area was] plentifully dotted”: William H. Rideing, “Hospital Life in New York,” Harper’s New Monthly Magazine, July 1878, pp. 171–89; quote is from p. 180. See also J. West Roosevelt, “In the Hospital,” Scribner’s Magazine, October 1894, pp. 472–86; A. B. Ward, “Hospital Life,” Scribner’s Magazine, June 1888, pp. 697–716; A. B. Ward, “The Invalid’s World,” Scribner’s Magazine, January 1889, pp. 58–73; H. M. Silver, “Surgery in Bellevue Hospital Fifty Years Ago,” Medical Journal and Record 120 (1924): pp. 551–57; Helen Campbell, “Hospital Life in New York,” in Darkness and Daylight; or, Lights and Shadows of New York Life: A Pictorial Record (Hartford, Conn.: Hartford Publishing Co., 1898), pp. 279–304; and Gardiner, “Getting a Medical Education,” pp. 3–11.
19 Adjacent to the hospital: Rideing, “Hospital Life,” pp. 171–89; see also MacCallum, Halsted, pp. 15–16.
20 “The picture has many changes”: Rideing, “Hospital Life,” p. 180.
21 The most desperately ill: Robert J. Carlisle, ed., An Account of Bellevue Hospital with a Catalogue of the Medical and Surgical Staff from 1736 to 1894 (New York: Society of the Alumni of Bellevue Hospital, 1893); Page Cooper, The Bellevue Story (New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1948); Salvatore R. Cutolo, with Arthur Gelb and Barbara Gelb, This Hospital Is My Home: The Story of Bellevue (London: Victor Gollancz, 1956); John Starr, Hospital City: The Story of the Men and Women of Bellevue (New York: Crown Publishers, 1957); and Rideing, “Hospital Life,” pp. 171–89.
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