104 A thunderbolt is caused when winds are repeatedly accumulated, compressed, and violently ignited; or when a part is severed and sent violently downward, the rupture occurring because the compression of the clouds has made the adjacent regions more dense; or it may be due like thunder to the emission of the pent-up fire, when this has accumulated and been inflated with gusts of wind and has shattered the cloud, being unable to escape to adjacent areas because it is increasingly compressed—typically near some high mountain, where thunderbolts mainly fall. Thunderbolts may be produced in many other ways as well. May myth only be banished! And it will be banished, if one adheres to the phenomena when drawing inferences about what cannot be observed.
105 Whirlwinds are due to the descent of a cloud forced downward like a pillar by a strong circular wind, while an outside wind simultaneously thrusts it sideways; or they may be due to a circular disposition of the wind, when a current of air from above forcibly compresses it; or it may be that a strong eddy of winds has been generated and is unable to flow out laterally because the surrounding air is condensed. As they descend to earth, they cause cyclones, in accordance with the various ways they are produced through the force of the wind; and on reaching the sea they cause waterspouts.
Statuette of Zeus or Poseidon, Greek, early fifth century BC. The identity of this mature bearded figure would have been clear from the attribute that was originally held in its right hand. It would have been either a thunderbolt, weapon of Zeus, god of the sky and ruler of the Olympian deities, or a trident, wielded by Poseidon, lord of the sea.
106 Earthquakes may be caused by the trapping of wind underground, and by its being dispersed among small masses of earth and then set in constant motion, thereby causing the earth to vibrate. And the earth either encloses this wind from outside or from the collapse of foundations into underground caves, which fans the trapped air into a wind. Or they may be due to the communication of the movement that results from the collapse of many foundations and to its being resisted when it encounters denser masses of earth. These motions inside the earth may have many other causes. Winds sometimes arise when some foreign substance gradually enters the air, and also through the gathering of abundant water. All the other winds arise when a small number of them fall into the earth’s many cavities, where they divide and multiply.
107 Hail is caused by the stronger freezing of certain breathlike particles that have collected from all sides and are distributed into drops; and also by the more moderate freezing of watery particles and their simultaneous rupture, which at one and the same time condenses them and breaks them up, so that they become frozen in parts and in the mass. The spherical shape of hailstones is not impossibly due to the melting of their extremities on all sides, and to the fact that freezing particles, whether watery or windlike, surround them evenly on all sides.
108 Snow may be formed when a fine rain issues from the clouds through pores of commensurate size because of constant pressure upon suitable clouds from a strong wind; and then this rain, as it falls, freezes as a result of some severe condition of coldness in the regions below the clouds; and also as a result of the freezing of clouds that have a fragile and uniform density, a fall of snow might occur when moisture-bearing clouds are densely packed against one another; these clouds, undergoing a sort of compression, produce hail—something that happens mostly in spring. And the rubbing together of frozen clouds may cause an accumulation of snow to be expelled. Snow may also have other causes.
109 Dew forms when particles capable of producing such moisture assemble from the air; it is also produced when such particles rise, either from damp regions or those containing water (where dew mainly forms), and subsequently reunite, pool their moisture, and fall to the regions below, just as, in our own experience, similar phenomena are frequently observed. The formation of frost is no different from that of dew, particles of a certain type becoming frozen in the presence of cold air.
Ice is produced by the expulsion from the water of the circular atoms, and the compression of the acute-angled and irregularly shaped atoms within it; it is also caused by the accretion of such atoms from without, which when driven together cause the water to freeze after a certain number of the spherical atoms are expelled.
110 The rainbow occurs when the sun shines on moist air; it may also result from a peculiar union of light and air that will produce the distinctive properties of these colors, either all together or one kind at a time. And from the reflection of this light the surrounding air will take on the colors we observe when the sun shines on its parts. Its curved appearance is due either to the fact that the distance from every point is perceived to be equal, or to the fact that the atoms in the air are compressed, or because the atoms in the clouds, which are derived from the same air, have been united in such a way that their aggregate displays a sort of roundness.
111 A halo around the moon occurs because the air on all sides extends to the moon, or because it uniformly elevates the currents from the moon until it disposes the cloudy mass in a circle, without separating it completely; or because it elevates the air surrounding the moon symmetrically from all sides to a circumference around it and there forms a dense ring. This occurs in certain parts either because some current has forced its way in from outside or because enough heat has gained possession of suitable passageways to bring this about.
Comets occur either because fire is collected in the heavens at certain places and times under favorable conditions; or because at times the heavens have a particular motion above us so that such stars become visible; or because the stars themselves, at certain times and under certain conditions, are propelled into our vicinity and become visible. Their disappearance is caused by motions in the opposite direction.
112 Certain stars revolve in place, not only because this part of the world, around which the rest revolves, is stationary, as some say, but also because a circular eddy of air, surrounding this part, prevents those stars from wandering as the others do; or because there is no suitable fuel nearby, whereas there is plenty in the region where they are seen. And there are many other ways this could happen if one is capable of reasoning in accordance with the phenomena.
113 That some of the stars wander (if that is what they actually do) while others do not may be explained by supposing that though their original motions were circular, some of them were forced to be whirled around with the same uniform rotation, while others are whirled with rotations that vary. It may also be that some of the regions through which they travel have uniform expanses of air that push them forward in one direction and keep them burning uniformly, while elsewhere there are irregular regions of air and these account for the variations we observe. But to advance a single cause for these phenomena when the phenomena suggest a multiplicity is to adopt the deranged and improper method of those who espouse a groundless astronomy and who assign senseless causes for celestial phenomena whenever they press divinity into service.
114 That some heavenly bodies are seen to be overtaken by others as they proceed along the same orbit occurs because they travel more slowly or because the same whirling motion draws them in the opposite direction; or it may be that some travel over a larger and others over a smaller space in completing the same revolution. But to posit a single explanation for these phenomena is the proper work of those who wish to dazzle the crowd with marvels.
115 So-called falling stars may be due in some instances to their mutual friction, in others to the expulsion of certain fragments through the action of the wind, just as we said occurred in the case of lightning. They may also result from the meeting of fire-producing atoms (kindred material arising to produce this result), their subsequent paths determined by their initial encounter; alternatively, it may be that wind collects in certain dense mistlike masses and then, as a result of being trapped, ignites, bursts through its envelope, and travels wherever its motion impels it. There are other ways to account for this phenomenon without resorting to myth.
116 That signs indicating weather to be expected appear to be associated with animal behavior is mere coincidence; for the animals offer no necessary reason that stormy weather should occur; and no divine being sits observing the comings and goings of these animals and then fulfills their signs. For such folly would not afflict the ordinary being, however little enlightened, let alone one who had attained perfect happiness.
Bear all these things in mind, Pythocles. For then you will keep far away from myth and will be able to comprehend related matters. Apply yourself especially to the study of first causes and infinity and related subjects, and again to the study of criteria and the feelings and our reasons for reflecting on these things. For to study these subjects together will easily enable you to grasp the causes of the particular phenomena; but those who have not felt the keenest devotion to these subjects will not have understood them well, nor will they have attained the end for which they should be studied.
117 These are his views on celestial phenomena.
With regard to the conduct of life, and how we ought to choose some things and avoid others, he writes as follows. But first let us go through what he and his followers have to say about the wise man.
118 Injuries inflicted by human beings arise from hate, envy, or contempt, to which the wise man proves superior by reason. Furthermore, he who has once become wise never again assumes the opposite character, nor does he willingly feign it. He will be more susceptible to feelings, but this will not impair his wisdom. Yet not every physical constitution would permit a man to become wise, nor every nationality. Even when he is tortured the wise man is content. He alone will feel gratitude toward friends, present and absent alike. When tortured, however, he moans and wails. The wise man will not consort with women in any manner proscribed by law, as Diogenes says in his Epitome of Epicurus’ Ethical Doctrines. Nor will he punish his servants; instead he will pity them and pardon any who are of good character. The Epicureans do not think that the wise man will fall in love; nor will he be concerned about his burial; nor do they think that love is sent by the gods, as Diogenes says in his <…>. Nor will the wise man make fine speeches. They maintain that sexual relations are never beneficial, and that one should be grateful not to be injured by them.
119,120a The wise man will not marry and beget children, as Epicurus says in Problems and his work On Nature. Occasionally, under certain circumstances in his life, he may marry. He will avert himself from certain persons. He will not talk nonsense when drunk, as Epicurus says in his Symposium. He will not participate in politics, as he says in the first book of his work On Life, or make himself a tyrant, or live like a Cynic (as he says in the second book of his work On Life), or be a beggar. But even when he has lost his sight he will not withdraw from life, as he says in that same book. The wise man will also experience grief, as Diogenes says in the fifth book of his Selected Writings. He will avail himself of the law courts; he will leave behind written works; but he will not deliver eulogies. He81 will take thought for his property and for the future. He will love the countryside. He will face his destiny and will not make any possession dear to him. He will take thought for his reputation only to the extent that he avoids being looked down upon. He will enjoy himself more than others at state festivals.
121b He will set up statues; but it will be a matter of indifference to him whether one is set up in his honor. Only the wise man will be competent to discuss music and poetry, though he will not write poems himself. No wise man is wiser than another. He will earn money if he needs to, but only by his wisdom. He will, on occasion, pay court to a monarch. He will be grateful to anyone who corrects him. He will establish a school, but not so as to court the mob. He will give readings in public, but only upon request. He will assert his opinions and will not remain in doubt about them. He will be himself even when asleep.82 And he will brave death on behalf of a friend.
120b,121a Epicurus’ followers hold that not all errors are equal; that health is in some instances a good, in others a matter of indifference; that courage does not come naturally but stems from a calculation of one’s interest; and that friendship is based on our needs. It has to be initiated, of course, just as we have to plant a seed in the earth; but it is maintained by a shared enjoyment of life’s pleasures. Two kinds of happiness may be conceived: the highest happiness, such as the gods enjoy, which cannot be increased; and the kind that allows for the addition and subtraction of pleasures.
But let us turn to Epicurus’ letter.
Epicurus to Menoeceus, greetings.
121 Let no one, because he is young, be slow to pursue philosophy, nor, because he is old, grow weary of the study; for no one is too young or too old to take thought for the health of the soul. And he who says that it is either too early or too late to study philosophy resembles one who says that it is too early or too late to pursue happiness. Therefore, both the young and the old man must seek wisdom, the latter so that as he ages he remains young in good things, by his joy in what has been, and the former so that while he is young he may at the same time be old, by being freed of the fear of what is to come. Thus we must act in such a way as to attain happiness; for if that is present we have everything; but if absent, we do all we can to attain it.
123 124 Perform and practice the actions I have constantly recommended, adopting them as the essentials of a life well lived. First, believe that the gods exist, imperishable and blessed, in accordance with the common view of divinity, and refrain from attributing to them anything contrary to or at odds with their immortality and blessedness. Affirm, instead, everything that could safeguard their immortality and blessedness. For gods exist, and the knowledge of them is evident; but they are not such as the many believe them to be; for people do not maintain consistent views about them. The man who denies the gods of the many is not impious, but rather he who applies to the gods the beliefs of the many. For their views about the gods are not true preconceptions but false assumptions; from their point of view, the greatest evils accrue to the bad and the greatest blessings to the good through the agency of the gods.83 For they always favor their own good qualities and embrace men who are like themselves, but regard everything that is unlike them as alien.
Two views of a marble head of a bearded man, second century Roman copy of a Greek statue of the fourth century BC. Since eight other Roman copies of this Greek portrait type are known, it probably represents a famous figure. Some scholars have suggested that the original statue portrayed the Athenian lawgiver Solon, one of the Seven Sages.
125 126 Accustom yourself to the idea that death is nothing to us. For all good and all bad are vested in sense perception, and death is deprivation of sense perception. Hence, a correct understanding that death is nothing to us makes the mortality of life enjoyable, not by giving life an unlimited span but by dispelling the desire for immortality. For life holds no fears for one who has truly grasped that there is nothing to be feared in not living. It is therefore the foolish man who says that he fears death not because when present it will give pain but because the prospect of it gives pain. For anything that does not cause annoyance when it is present occasions a groundless pain when it is anticipated. Therefore death, that most horrible of evils, is nothing to us, since when we exist, death is not present, and when death is present, we do not exist. It is nothing, then, either to the living or to the dead, since it does not exist for the former, and the latter no longer exist. And as for the many, at times they flee death as the greatest of evils, at others they <…> as a respite from the bad things in life. The wise man neither rejects life nor fears death. For living does not offend him, nor does he regard not living as something bad. Just as, in the case of food, he chooses not the larger portion, but the more pleasant, so he seeks to enjoy not the longest time, but the most pleasant. And anyone who advises the young to live well and the old to die well is foolish, not only because life is desirable, but also because it is one and the same thing to live well and to die well. Far worse is the man who says tha
t it is good not to be born, “but once born, to pass with all speed through the gates of Hades.”84
Cypriot limestone grave marker (detail), fourth century BC, with two men reclining at a banquet. Such a scene may have simply evoked the pleasures of daily life or it may have been intended to elevate the deceased to a heroic level.
Lives of the Eminent Philosophers Page 63
