Japan, ed. John Whitney Hall and James L. McClain (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1991), 235–300. Here, see p. 278, where Elisonas cites Frois, a
Jesuit in Japan at the time.
5. Xing Hang, “The Shogun’s Chinese Partners: The Alliance between Tokugawa
Japan and the Zheng Family in Seventeenth- Century Maritime East Asia,”
Journal of Asian Studies 75, no. 1 (2016): 111–136.
6. Marius B. Jansen, China in the Tokugawa World (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1992), 13.
7. Ibid., 29.
chapter 3. responding to western challenges and
reopening relations, 1839–1882
1. Masao Miyoshi, As We Saw Them: The First Japanese Embassy to the United
States (Philadelphia: Paul Dry Books, 2005), 2.
2. Foo Ah Fong, “The Seven Lamps of a Sustainable City,” in Sustainable Cities of
the 21st Century, ed. A. F. Foo and Belinda Yuen, 118 (Singapore: National Uni-
versity of Singapore Press and World Scientific, 1999).
. 473 .
notes to pages 111–120
chapter 4. rivalry in korea and the
sino- japanese war, 1882–1895
I am indebted to Car ter Eckert, Sheila Jager, and Alex Dudden for their reading of this
chapter and for their advice, and to Jenny Huangfu Day for sharing her research. For the
situation in Korea prior to the war period and for the role of Japan in Korea, I have relied
on works by Conroy, Deuchler, Dudden, Eckert, Fogel, Kallander, Larsen, Okazaki,
Palais, and Reynolds. Frederick Foo Chien wrote his Ph.D. thesis as a young scholar at
Yale, but he later became a leading Taiwan diplomat and headed the Taiwan mission in
Washington, D.C. For the immediate background of the Sino- Japanese War, the war
itself, and its impact, I have drawn especial y on works by El eman, Paine, and Evans
and Peattie. The studies by Duus, Iriye, Jansen, and Schmid fol ow the impact of the war.
The work in Chinese (also available in Japa nese) edited by Bu Ping and Kitaoka Shin-
ichi, based on efforts by the two countries to work toward achieving a common per-
spective on their history, provides a summary of Chinese and Japa nese scholarly views.
1. Ki- Baik Lee, A New History of Korea (Cambridge, Mass.: Published for the
Harvard- Yenching Institute by Harvard University Press, 1984), 282.
2. Bruce A. Elleman, Modern Chinese Warfare, 1795–1989 (London: Routledge,
2001), 101.
chapter 5. japa nese lessons for a
modernizing china, 1895–1937
This chapter draws on the research and analy sis in Paula S. Harrell, Asia for the
Asians: China in the Lives of Five Meiji Japa nese, and Paula Harrell, Sowing the Seeds of Change: Chinese Students, Japa nese Teachers, 1895–1905, and in par tic u lar on the following sources cited therein: Aida Tsutomu and Kawashima Naniwa, Kawashima
Naniwa Ō; Fang Zhaoying, Qingmo minchu yangxue xuesheng timinglu chuqi (Preliminary listing of students abroad in the late Qing– early Republican period; Gaikō
jihō (Revue diplomatique), for articles by Ariga Nagao, 1898–1920; Hattori Unokichi, Pekin rōjō nikki (Diary of the siege of Beijing); Konoe Atsumaro, Konoe Atsumaro nikki (Diary of Konoe Atsumaro); Sanetō Bunko Mokuroku (Cata logue of the Sanetō Collection), Hibiya Library, for trip reports by official Chinese visitors to
Japan, 1898–1906; and all of Sanetō Keishū’s monumental works, including
Chūgokujin Nihon ryūgaku shi (A history of Chinese students in Japan) .
Archival sources consulted include Gaimushō Gaikō Shiryōkan 外務省外交史料
館 (Diplomatic Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan), Tokyo, for
documents on Japa nese advisers in China, 1902–1915; also Hubei xuesheng jie 湖北
學生界 (Hubei students circle), Jiangsu 江蘇, Zhejiang chao 浙江潮 (Tide of Zhe-
. 474 .
notes to pages 140–243
jiang), and other Chinese student magazines, republished by Zhongguo guomin-
dang dangshi shiliao bianzuan weiyuanhui 中國國民黨 黨史史料編纂委員會
(Guomin dang Party Historical Materials Compilation Committee), Taipei (1968).
Douglas R. Reynolds, China, 1898–1912, is an excellent authoritative source, as is his
work on Toa Dobun Shoin. See “Training Young China Hands: Tōa Dōbun Shoin
and Its Precursors, 1886–1945,” in Peter Duus, Ramon H. Myers, and Mark R.
Peattie, eds., The Japanese Informal Empire in China, 1895– 1937 (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1989). See also Paul A. Cohen, History in Three Keys;
Marius B. Jansen’s unsurpassed The Japanese and Sun Yat-sen; Luke S. K. Kwong, A
Mosaic of the Hundred Days; and Edward J. M. Rhoads, Manchus and Han. For the
discussion of Shimoda Utako and Kano Jigoro, see Paula Harrell, “The Meiji ‘New
Woman’ and China,” in Joshua A. Fogel, ed., Late Qing China and Meiji Japan. I also
appreciate the advice of Nagatomi Hirayama.
1. Quoted in Paula S. Harrell, Asia for the Asians: China in the Lives of Five Meiji
Japa nese (Portland, Maine: MerwinAsia, 2012), 43.
2. Ibid., 21.
3. Ibid., 51.
4. Ibid., 59.
5. Paula Harrell, Sowing the Seeds of Change: Chinese Students, Japa nese Teachers,
1895–1905 (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1992), 66.
6. Quoted in ibid., 45.
7. Ibid., 46.
8. Ibid., 50.
9. Ibid., 53
10. Quoted in Harrell, Asia for the Asians, 111.
11. Ibid., 331.
12. Quoted in Harrell, Sowing the Seeds, 34.
chapter 6. the colonization of taiwan
and manchuria, 1895–1945
1. Thomas R. Gottschang and Diana Lary, Swal ows and Settlers: The Great Mi-
gration from North China to Manchuria (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies,
University of Michigan, 2000), 2.
chapter 7. po liti cal disorder and the
road to war, 1911–1937
1. Lu Yan, Re- understanding Japan: Chinese Perspectives, 1895–1945 (Honolulu: As-
sociation for Asian Studies and University of Hawai’i Press, 2004), 204–205.
. 475 .
notes to pages 248–274
chapter 8. the sino- japanese war, 1937–1945
In this chapter I rely heavi ly on the work of scholars who took part in a series of
conferences on the Second Sino- Japanese War held, over several years, at Harvard,
on the Hawaiian island of Maui, in Hakone, and in Chongqing. I hosted the first
conference in cooperation with Yang Tianshi, Yamada Tatsuo, Stephen MacK-
innon, Diana Lary, Mark Peattie, Hirano Kenichi, and Hans van de Ven. Peattie
played the major role in organ izing the second conference, Yamada and Hirano the
third conference, Yang Tianshi the fourth conference. Hans van de Ven has be-
come the key leader in continuing the research following the conferences. These
meetings brought Chinese, Japa nese, and Western scholars together with the goal
of achieving a comprehensive picture of the war. In analyzing the military cam-
paigns, I have drawn particularly on the volume edited by Peattie, Drea, and Van
de Ven, which is based on papers that they and other scholars, Western, Chinese,
and Japa nese, prepared for the second conference in our series. For the account of
the Nanjing Incident, I relied heavi ly on the diary by Rabe, the documents col-
lected by Timothy Brook, the work of Yang Daqing, and the volume edited
by
Joshua Fogel.
1. As mentioned in the preface, I use the name Beiping here, rather than Beijing,
because the city was not then the capital. Many historians, including many Japa-
nese historians, now refer to 1931, when the Japa nese took over Manchuria, as
the date when the Sino- Japanese War began. (The Chinese generally refer to
the conflict as the War of Re sis tance.) I use the term “Sino- Japanese War” and
identify 1937 as the year the war started because these are the designations com-
monly used by Western scholars.
2. Mark R. Peattie, Edward J. Drea, and Hans J. van de Ven, eds., The Battle for
China: Essays on the Military History of the Sino- Japanese War of 1937–1945 (Stan-
ford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2011), 115.
3. David Askew, “Part of the Numbers Issue: Demography and Civilian Victims,”
in The Nanking Atrocity, 1937–1938: Complicating the Picture, ed. Bob Tadashi
Wakabayashi, 86–114 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2007).
4. Ibid.
5. Frederic E. Wakeman Jr., Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Ser vice
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003).
6. Lyman Van Slyke, “The Chinese Communist Movement during the Sino-
Japanese War 1937–1945,” in The Cambridge History of China, vol. 13: Republican
China 1912–1949, Part 2, ed. John K. Fairbank and Albert Feuerworker (Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 629.
7. Ibid., 620–621.
. 476 .
notes to pages 282–313
8. Parks M. Coble, Chinese Cap ital ists in Japan’s New Order: The Occupied Lower
Yangzi, 1937–1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 1. There are
no reliable figures, and other estimates run higher and lower.
chapter 9. the collapse of the japa nese
empire and the cold war, 1945–1972
For a chronology and summary of events during the period covered in this chapter,
see the work by Kokubun, Soeya, Takahara, and Kawashima. The role of Emperor
Hirohito is spelled out in the book by Herbert Bix. For an account of the Sino-
Japanese Friendship Association, see Franziska Seraphim. For work on the broad con-
text of war guilt and its management, see Barak Kushner. For the experience of Japa-
nese repatriates, I have drawn on the work by Watt. For the Korean War, I have relied
especially on the works by Chen, Cumings, Jager, Oberdorfer, and Tsui. I first visited
Taiwan in 1958 and heard stories from Taiwanese acquaintances, including Dr. Lin
Tsung-yi, about their experiences living under the Japa nese and readjusting after the
Japa nese left Taiwan. When I did fieldwork on Japa nese families in 1958–1960 I also
heard stories from Japa nese friends who had been repatriated. I have had Japa nese
friends, including Nakasone Yasuhiro and Okita Saburo, who played a role in this his-
tory, and I have had opportunities to talk with many of the Japa nese, Chinese, and
Western scholars who have worked on these topics.
1. Franziska Seraphim, War Memory and Social Politics in Japan, 1945–2005 (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center, 2006), 124–125.
2. Lori Watt, When Empire Comes Home: Repatriation and Reintegration in Postwar
Japan (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Asia Center, 2009), 1–2.
3. Amy King, China- Japan Relations after World War II: Empire, Industry and War,
1949–1971 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016), 61–63.
4. James P. Harrison, The Long March to Power: A History of the Chinese Commu-
nist Party, 1921–1972 (New York: Praeger, 1972).
5. Tsukasa Takamine, Japan’s Development Aid to China: The Long- Running For-
eign Policy of Engagement (London: Routledge, 2006), 27.
6. Barak Kushner, Men to Dev ils, Dev ils to Men: Japa nese War Crimes and Chinese
Justice (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2015), 8.
7. Chak Wing David Tsui, China’s Military Intervention in Korea: Its Origin and
Objectives (Bloomington, Ind.: Trafford Publishing, 2015).
8. Don Oberdorfer, Two Koreas: A Con temporary History (Reading, Mass.:
Addison- Wesley, 1997), 9.
9. John W. Dower, Empire and Aftermath: Yoshida Shigeru and the Japa nese Expe-
rience, 1878–1954 (Cambridge, Mass.: Council on East Asian Studies, Harvard
University, 1979), 407.
. 477 .
notes to pages 313–355
10. Ibid., 403.
11. Chae- Jin Lee, Japan Faces China: Po liti cal and Economic Relations in the Postwar
Era (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 79.
12. Mayumi Itoh, Pioneers of Sino- Japanese Relations: Liao and Takasaki (New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 101–103.
chapter 10. working together, 1972–1992
1. Pei Hua 裴华, ZhongRi waijiao fengyunzhong de Deng Xiaoping 中日外交风云
中的邓小平 (Deng Xiaoping in the whirlwind of Sino- Japanese relations) (Bei-
jing: Zhongyang wenxian chubanshe, 2002), 125.
2. Chae- Jin Lee, China and Japan: New Economic Diplomacy (Stanford, Calif.:
Hoover Institution Press, 1984), 19.
3. Ibid., 140–141.
4. Tsukasa Takamine, Japan’s Development Aid to China: The Long- Running For-
eign Policy of Engagement (London: Routledge, 2006), 5–6.
5. Ryosei Kokubun, “The Politics of Foreign Economic Policy- Making in China:
The Case of Plant Cancellations with Japan,” China Quarterly, no. 105
(March 1986): 19–44; here, 34.
6. Japa nese government polling, reported by Takahara Akio, in Ezra F. Vogel, Yuan
Ming, and Akihiko Tanaka, eds., The Age of Uncertainty: The U.S.- China- Japan
Triangle from Tian anmen (1989) to 9/11 (2001) (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni-
versity Asia Center, 2004), 256.
chapter 11. the deterioration of sino- japanese
relations, 1992–2018
I am indebted to many scholars for their histories of Sino- Japanese relations since
1972, including Tom Berger, Richard Bush, June Dreyer, Peter Dutton, Taylor Fravel,
Iriye Akira, Lam Peng Er, Richard McGregor, Giulio Pugliese and Aurelio Insisa,
James Reilly, Caroline Rose, Franziska Seraphim, Sheila Smith, Ming Wan, Jessica
Weiss, Yang Daqing, and the scholars who contributed to the conferences and vol-
umes edited by Yuan Ming, Tanaka Akihiko, and myself. I am also indebted to many
individuals with whom I have spoken about these issues. Among the Japa nese are the
late Kato Koichi, the late Eto Shinkichi, and Akimoto Satohiro, Anami Ginny, Anami
Koreshige, Fukuda Yasuo, Hirano Kenichiro, Iokibe Makoto, Isobe Koichi, Katayama
Kazuyuki, Kato Yoshikazu, Kawashima Shin, Kitaoka Shinichi, Kojima Kazuko,
Kokubun Ryosei, Michii Rokuichiro, Minemura Kenji, Miyamoto Yuji, Mori Kazuko,
Niwa Uichiro, Ouchi Hiroshi, Seguchi Kiyoyuki, Soeya Yoshihide, Suzuki Michihiko,
Takahara Akio, Tanino Sakutaro, Togo Kazuhiko, Yamada Tatsuo, and Yokoi Yutaka.
I am indebted to Masuo Chisako for her advice and for her continuing help in guiding
all aspects of my work in Japan.
. 478 .
notes to pages 357–405
I have had many conversations with Li Tingjiang, professor at Chuo University,
who also helped me arrange many interviews with both Japa nese and Chinese
scholars. Wu Huaizhong, of the Japan Research Cent
er, Chinese Acad emy of Social
Sciences, spent several months helping me understand Chinese perspectives.
Among the Chinese who helped increase my understanding about these issues are
Cheng Yonghua, Cheng Zhongyuan, Bob Ching, Chung Yen- lin, Cui Tiankai, the
late He Fang, Li Rui, Li Wei, Ma Licheng, Ren Yi, Wang Jisi, Wang Yi, Wu Xinbo,
Yuan Ming, Zhang Baijia, Zhang Tuosheng, Zhang Yunling, and Zhu Jiamu. Until
he died suddenly in late 2018, I was greatly assisted in my work by my long- time
research assistant, Dou Xinyuan. Among the Americans with whom I have dis-
cussed Sino- Japanese relations are Thomas Berger, Richard Bush, Gerald Curtis,
Andrew Gordon, Robert Hoppins, Mike Mochizuki, Greg Noble, William Over-
holt, Douglas Paal, Susan Pharr, Richard Samuels, Joseph Schmelzeis, Franziska
Seraphim, Michael Swaine, and Daqing Yang. I appreciate the advice of Todd Hall
on both this chapter and Chapter 12.
1. I had the privilege of being Kato Koichi’s master’s thesis adviser when he was
studying at Harvard University and meeting with him from time to time after
he became a member of the Diet.
2. Bruce Stokes, “Hostile Neighbors: China vs. Japan,” Pew Research Center:
Global Attitudes and Trends, September 13, 2016, www .pewglobal .org / 2016 / 09
/ 13 / hostile - neighbors - china - vs - japan / .
3. Yukio Okamoto, “Journey through U.S.- Japan Relations,” unpublished manu-
script, 2018.
4. The three additional countries in ASEAN Plus 3 are China, Japan, and the Re-
public of Korea.
5. Justin McCurry, “Koizumi’s Final Shrine Trip Draws Protests,” Guardian, Au-
gust 15, 2006, www .theguardian .com / world / 2006 / aug / 15 / japan .justinmccurry.
6. Sheila A. Smith, Intimate Rivals: Japa nese Domestic Politics and a Rising China
(New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 229.
7. Tanino Sakutaro 谷野作太郎, Chukoku Gaiko Hiwa: Aru China Hando no
kaisou 中国外交秘話: 實藤惠秀回想 (The secrets of China policy: Recol-
lections of a China hand) (Tokyo: Toyo Keizai Shinbunsha, 2017), 315.
chapter 12. facing the new era
1. Chae- Jin Lee, Japan Faces China: Po liti cal and Economic Relations in the Postwar
Era (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), 144.
2. Ibid., 79.
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