by Grant Allen
Again, in every case, the ether is the final gainer of Energy, and every Motion is only an incident which ultimately effects the transfer of Energy (i.e. separation) from matter to ether. On the surface of our earth, where so large an amount of Energy is being daily poured down by the sun, this truth is masked by the fact that new Energy continually replaces the old. But if we leave out of consideration the accretions thus made to our store of Energy, we shall see that every Motion originates in an aggregation — whether it be through the fall of a body at a height, or the burning of coal in an engine, or the oxidation of food in an animal body — and that after the motion has taken place, there is a less total of Potential Energy on the earth, while the Kinetic Energy has been transferred, in whole or in part, to the ether. This principle, here briefly alluded to in the abstract, will be fully developed in the portion of this work devoted to concrete phenomena. Far more evident, however, is this truth when we look to the wider sidereal system. There, we see at once that all Kinetic Energy is the correlative of an aggregation, and that the separative Power, which once divided the ponderable matter composing the various suns, is now being radiated off, as they aggregate, in the form of ethereal Kinetic Energy — or, as we oftener say, of Light and Heat. This Energy, when it falls upon such a mass as our own planet, at once displays its separative nature by such phenomena as the melting of ice, the raising of aqueous vapour, the formation of winds, and the production of living organisms. These questions, again, will be fully discussed in the Second Part of this book.
Briefly, we may say that the shortest formula to embrace the facts of Kinetic Energy is the following: — Motion is the redistribution of separations.
We have now completed our rapid survey of the abstract principles of Transcendental Dynamics, and may proceed to consider their concrete manifestations. Before doing so, it was the author’s original intention to glance briefly in a separate Part at certain other subordinate facts connected with the development of the subject. The Laws laid down in the present First Part mostly refer to that department of science known as Physics; though we have treated incidentally of many facts commonly looked upon as chemical and electrical. A special Part ought to have been dedicated to a brief examination of certain qualitative propositions in Chemistry and Electrical Science: but this task, unfortunately, the author has found impossible of achievement with his existing knowledge. He therefore proceeds at once to the concrete manifestations.
Part II
CONCRETE OR SYNTHETIC
CHAPTER I.
DYNAMICAL FORMULA OF THE UNIVERSE.
We have now to consider in their concrete applications the abstract laws laid down in the First Part. Our chief object in doing so will be to show how simply and clearly the wider dynamical relations of the Universe can be comprehended under our conception of Force and Energy, as two mutually opposing and indestructible forms of Power.
If we conceive a Universe without any inherent Force, all of whose atoms stood at varying distances from one another, we can see that it would continue for ever motionless, all its Energy remaining in the Potential Mode as simple statical separation. There would be nothing to draw together its scattered parts, or to set up motion in a single one of its particles. On the other hand, if we conceive a Universe actuated only by Force, we can see that it would aggregate immediately if it were in a discrete form, or that it would preserve its inertia if it were already absolutely aggregated. There would be no Conservation of Energy, and each mass, as it glided into the central whole, would simply subside without communicating its motion or separation to adjoining masses. But the only Universe which we know by observation is actuated both by Force and Energy. It consists in part of ponderable atoms, molecules, and masses, each of which tends to aggregate with the others, but each of which can only get rid of its separation by passing it on to some other substance, either as separation or as its equivalent, motion. It also consists in part of other relatively imponderable particles, known as ether, occupying all the interspaces, great or small, between the ponderable bodies, and capable of receiving and imparting Energy from or to the ponderable units. And inasmuch as all moving bodies part with some portion of their motion to every other body with which they come in contact in every direction, and, further, inasmuch as the interspaces of ponderable bodies are infinitely greater than the space occupied by such bodies, it must necessarily follow that the total amount of energy received by the ether from all ponderable bodies must be very much greater than the total amount of Energy received by all ponderable bodies from the ether. In other words, the ponderable bodies must be aggregating, and passing on their Energy to the ether.
Our Dynamical Formula of the existing Universe, so far as it is known to us in its present stage, will therefore be a deduction from the Law of the Indestructibility of Power — that is, from the joint principles of Persistence of Force and Conservation of Energy. It may be stated as follows.
All the ponderable bodies of the Universe are continuously aggregating under the influence of Forces, and are imparting their Energy to the ethereal medium: such continuous aggregation being only locally interfered with where the Energy imparted to the ether by one aggregating mass falls upon the surface of another mass, and there sets up temporary separative action, in opposition to the local Forces.
It may be added that such local separative action, as hinted above, is not sufficient in amount to counteract the general aggregative action, and that, in consequence, the ponderable matter of the Universe is daily becoming, as a whole, more aggregated, while the ethereal medium is daily becoming more energetic: though we have no means of knowing whether the Energy absorbed by the ether continues always in the Kinetic Mode, or finally assumes the form of statical separation.
We have now to apply this Formula to the explanation of the concrete phenomena presented by the Universe in its various portions. Our explanation will serve a double purpose, as a deductive affiliation of the several sciences on the Law of the Indestructibility of Power, and as a verification of our abstract principles by their exact coincidence with well-known facts.
CHAPTER II.
THE SIDEREAL SYSTEM.
The life-history of the material Universe, as known and predictable by us, is the history of its passage from a diffused nebulous state to an aggregated solid state, through a vast number of intermediate stages, each one of which is an advance in aggregation upon the stage which preceded it. Whether or not the universe had any previous state to that of the earliest known nebula, whether it will have any later state than that of the absolutely aggregated mass, are speculative questions into which we will not enter in the present treatise. It will be sufficient for our purpose to trace the history of matter in its existing phase, from its first known form as numberless diffused atoms, to its last knowable form as a single aggregated mass.
All modern science compels us to posit as starting point a primordial state of the Universe in which its various masses, molecules, and atoms stood apart from one another at unknown distances. But each particle had inherent in it those forces which were destined in the future to effect its aggregation with every other. Accordingly, however we figure to ourselves the beginning as absolute or relative (and it must be allowed that we have here reached the utmost limits of our conceptive faculty), we cannot but suppose that from the moment of that beginning the various particles began to set at once towards one another. The primordial form of Energy was therefore all Potential, and it must immediately have begun to assume in part the Kinetic Mode.
If we assume that the primitive cosmical nebula was perfectly spherical in shape, and absolutely homogeneous and uniform in the disposition of its various atoms, then we can hardly resist the inference that, as each particle would be quite evenly attracted towards the common centre of gravity, there would have resulted a single aggregating sphere, whose Potential Energy would all have passed into the form of heat as the atoms clashed together, and would have been slowly communicated to the circumambient et
her, until the whole mass had assumed its most aggregated shape. But as we do not find this condition fulfilled by the existing Universe, we must conjecture that the primitive nebula was not uniform in shape or in texture — that it enclosed within it groups of tenuous matter more or less separated from other groups by lines of demarcation more or less strong. Such inequalities of distribution may have been infinitesimal; for it is only necessary to our purpose that certain atoms, besides their general gravitation towards the common centre, should also have displayed a special gravitation towards special centres. Granted this, the reason for the discrete condition of the sidereal masses becomes obvious.
But when each ultimate particle began to unite with each other particle, the Law of Conservation demanded that their Energy of statical separation should not die out as they coalesced, but should pass on to some other body or assume some other form. The manner in which it actually shows itself is that of heat. Within each sidereal mass, the atoms are in a fierce state of vibratory movement, the correlative of their previous separation and of the Kinetic Energy of their mutually aggregative motion. This vibratory movement is perpetually being communicated to the adjacent ether as Radiant Energy, and a corresponding aggregation within the sidereal mass is perpetually taking place. Each sun is thus a body of aggregating atoms, being drawn together from moment to moment by their inherent Forces, while their Energy of statical separation, after passing into the continuous Kinetic form as true Heat (molecular vibration), is yielded up, little by little, to the adjacent particles of ether as Radiant Energy. The Energy thus absorbed by the ether is passed on by it from particle to particle of its substance, radiating in every direction throughout all space. Some small portion strikes the surface of our planet, both from our own sun and others like it; and it is known to us as Light and Heat.
We thus see that all the Energy of Light and Heat radiating through the whole of space from the various material masses has for its origin the statical separation of the primordial nebula. But is this equally true of the Kinetic Energy of their various relative motions? There is reason to think that it is.
The Universe as a whole has a common centre of gravity, towards which all its various masses are attracted. Those masses still possess Potential Energy in virtue of their separation from one another and from this central point of union: and it is clear that if they were to aggregate suddenly round that point, their Potential Energy would become Kinetic as they fell, and would be transmuted into Heat as they clashed together at the common cosmical meeting-place. It would then be radiated off into the ether, and the matter would gradually assume a solid and perfectly aggregated form. Now, it is possible that some of the sidereal masses may be thus gravitating towards the common centre in a direct line; and if they are, then it is clear that their motion is the correlative of their previous separation. But it is more probable that the various suns are prevented from aggregating directly with one another by some form of continuous motion. We are sure in the case of the best-known large masses — the earth and other planets — that they are prevented from aggregating with their relative centre, the sun, by the continuous Energy of their orbital motion. We also know that certain special suns — the double stars — have such a relative motion with regard to one another. We further know that all stars have a proper motion whose cycle is so immense that it cannot be measured by the short period of human observation. It is probable, therefore, that the ascertained cause which prevents central aggregation in the known cases (namely, orbital motion) may be fairly extended to the unknown cases. We may conclude, accordingly, that all the heavenly bodies are prevented from aggregating around the common cosmical centre of gravity owing to their possession of a relative orbital movement. Of course, there may be many cycles of such orbital movements one within the other, as we know to be the case with the satellites which circle round a planet, while the planet circles round the sun, and the sun has his own proper motion. All that is contended here is merely this — that each mass or set of masses is probably prevented from aggregating with each other mass or set of masses, around their relative centre, or around the absolute cosmical centre, by some continuous Kinetic Energy, analogous to the known orbital motion of the planets and their satellites. Now, is this continuous Energy the transmuted form of previous separation in the parts of each mass? In the best-known case — that of the masses composing the solar system — astronomical authority has decided that it is. Laplace has shown that the orbital motions of the planets and satellites, as well as the axial motions of the sun and its dependent bodies, may be accounted for by the falling together of nebulous matter, whose Energy of separation, becoming Kinetic in the act of aggregation, and then receiving a check, communicates motion to the whole mass. In what way this axial motion is converted into orbital motion we shall see when we come to consider the solar system in the next chapter. For the present it must suffice to point out that the Energy of relative motion in heavenly bodies is thus probably due, like their Energy of Heat, to the primordial Potential Energy of their originally separate and discrete particles.
Again, is this Molar Kinetic Energy of relative motion in the various heavenly bodies being yielded up to the ether, as we saw to be the case with their Molecular Kinetic Energy, which is being dispersed from moment to moment through all space in the radiant form? There are reasons for thinking that this also is the fact. It is now pretty generally admitted that orbital Energy is slowly lost by ethereal friction in the case of the planets: and there is no reason to doubt that it is equally lost in the case of these larger masses, the fixed stars. And as the Kinetic Energy of orbital motion seems to be the only barrier to aggregation under the influence of gravitation, it will follow that as this Energy is imparted to the ether, the various heavenly bodies will draw closer and closer together, until, when all their Energy has been transferred to ether, they will aggregate in absolute contact around their common centre.
Let us restate then, in a simpler way, the probable conclusions to which we are led. The Material Universe originally existed as a vast nebula of discrete particles, in which Persistent Forces and Conservative Energies were inherent. As its Forces drew together the particles into several masses their Potential Energy became Kinetic. Part of it assumed the Molar form, and drove the various masses in orbit within orbit around their relative centres, and, ultimately, round the common cosmical centre. Part of it assumed the Molecular form, and kept the molecules of each mass in a state of rapid continuous vibration. But each Kinetic Energy alike was and is continually being yielded up to the ethereal medium. As Radiant Energy, the Molecular motion is from day to day imparted to the ether, and transmitted to the furthest ends of space. Some small portion of it falls upon other material masses, scattered like lonely islands in the ocean of ether, and may there set up separative action: but the vastly greater portion is never again expended on a particle of matter. As ethereal friction, the Molar motion is more slowly yielded up to the ether, in which it produces (probably) waves of heat (or low-powered radiant Energy). And there is no reason to doubt that this process will go on indefinitely until it reaches its final result. The Molecular Motion will probably be dissipated until each mass has grown cold and inert: the Molar Motion will probably be dissipated until all the masses aggregate round their common centre. The Material Universe, which began as a number of discrete particles, will end as a single aggregated mass: all the Energy which was inherent in its separate form will have been transferred to the ether: and motion will have been the means of transference, the representative of the separation during its intermediate stage.
Of course, in this brief sketch of the cosmical life-history many incidents of vast relative importance are necessarily omitted. One mass — whether sun, planet, or satellite, — circling round another, may part with its Molar or orbital Energy, and may aggregate with its central mass, long before other masses have done so. At the moment when two such bodies aggregate, doubtless some portion of their Molar Energy will still remain, and
this will probably be converted into the Molecular species, and radiated away as heat and light. But such minor incidents, forming the several steps of the great process by which matter is aggregated and Energy dissipated into ether, do not interfere with the main process as laid down above. Moreover, as the history of one such episode — that of the solar system — will be more fully considered in our next chapter, it is less necessary to enter into details at the present stage.
This chapter contains much that is purely speculative and may raise objections in many minds. That is inevitable, considering the vastness of the subject and our ignorance of the facts. But as we progress to the solar system the speculative character of our explanations will gradually decrease: and when we reach our own planet — the most practically important to ourselves — the element of hypothesis will disappear altogether. For symmetry’s sake, however, it is necessary that the less certain cosmical application of our principles should precede the more certain mundane application.
