Escape From Rome

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Escape From Rome Page 78

by Walter Scheidel

Abernathy, David, 450, 453, 591n71

  Académie royal des sciences (Paris), 475

  Acemoglu, Daron, 496, 525, 602n45

  Achaemenid empire: Athenian empire fighting against, 55, 553n6; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 112, 112–13, 119, 121; duration and scope of, 221, 300, 522; horsemanship of, 299; imperial consolidation under, 38; logistical challenges of, 139; Middle Eastern political-military network, 90; military of, 299–300, 521; population of, 35, 39, 140, 219; reach of, 552n5

  Actium, battle of (31 BCE), 79

  Aetolian league, 95

  Afghanistan, 285, 298, 435

  Afzelius, Adam, 550n19

  Aghlabids, 151, 152

  Akkadian empire, 112, 112, 543n7

  Alexander the Great (Macedonian king), 11, 91, 95, 114–17, 115, 119, 121, 221, 553n8, 553n12

  Alfred (English king), 239

  Allen, Robert, 491–95, 499, 501, 597n59, 597n71

  Ambrose, 315, 574n10

  Ameling, Walter, 439n4, 439n6

  Americas. See maritime exploration and expansion; New World; United States

  Anastasius I (Roman emperor), 315

  Anatolia, 82, 90, 95, 100, 112, 135, 136, 179, 204, 206, 221, 317

  Angkorian empire, 47, 272

  Antigonus I (Macedonian king), 117, 553n14

  Antiochos IV (Seleucid king), 601n36

  Antony, 83

  Appian, 85

  Aquitaine, 148–49, 153, 156, 160

  Arab conquests: Christian Spain repelling, 176, 193; in eighth century, 12, 139–52; fragmentation of, 145–47, 246; inability to maintain a large-scale empire in Europe, 147–48, 152, 215, 512; Islamic religious practices and, 317; in Levant, 301; military practices and, 145–46, 256; Samarra crisis (860s) and, 145; in sixth century, 136, 137, 138; tax practices and, 143, 144, 146–47, 255–56. See also Abbasid caliphate; Iberian peninsula; Umayyad caliphate

  Arabic language and writing, 311, 329

  Aramaic language, 311

  Archimedes, 524

  aristocracy. See nobility

  Aristophanes, 553n6

  Arrighi, Giovanni, 399, 583n141

  Arsaces I (Parthian king), 299

  Asia: ecology of, 277; economic development in, 2, 3–4; New World bullion transferred to, 421, 425. See also specific regions and countries

  assemblies and decision-making bodies, 355–57

  Assyria, 112, 221, 299, 543n7

  Athenian empire, 55, 113–14, 115, 553n6. See also Greek city-states

  Atlas of World Population History (McEvedy and Jones, eds.), 533–34

  Augustus (Roman emperor), 83–84, 101, 457

  Avars, 135, 137, 139, 154, 182, 246, 293

  Ayyubids, 176

  Aztec empire, 46, 55, 193, 464, 543n7

  Bacon, Francis, 478

  Baechler, Jean, 396, 515

  Baghdad, 191, 207, 256

  Bang, Peter F., 539n21

  Bank of England, 382

  Barfield, Thomas, 277, 279, 287, 295, 568n40

  Batu, 174–81, t186, 188

  Bayle, Pierre, 474

  Bayly, Chris A., 478–79, 496, 539n21

  Beard, Mary, 542n4

  Beckwith, Christopher, 278, 568n40, 568n42

  Béla IV (Hungarian king), 176–78, 180

  Belich, James, 470

  Bennett, James, 552n36

  Berbers, 136, 142, 144, 148–49, 151–54, 213, 302

  Billows, Richard, 553n14

  Black Death, 4, 142, 190, 371, 417, 491, 498, 499, 597n60, 598n79

  Bodde, Derk, 405, 594n23, 595n27

  Bohemia, 83, 176, 185, 268, 347, 376, 474

  Bosworth, A. B., 553n9

  Brahe, Tycho, 483

  Brandt, Loren, 394

  Braudel, Fernand, 32

  Britain. See England/Britain

  Bryant, Joseph, 392, 589n18

  Buddhism, 224, 317–20, 322, 329

  Bulgars, 136, 137, 152, 155, 175, 290

  Burgundians, 132, 134, 153, 165, 166, 193

  Burma, 182, 303, 306, 457

  Byzantine empire (Byzantium), 136, 143, 168, 187, 316, 508–9, 511, 572n80. See also Constantinople; East Roman restoration (sixth century)

  California school of scholarship, 575n1

  Calvin, Jean, 197, 200, 474

  Campanella, Tommaso, 474

  capitalism, 391–92, 396, 411, 414, 473, 589n20, 596n58

  Carolingian empire, 153–64, 155, 157; compared to Roman empire, 162–63, 213, 228; demise of, 240; elites as warriors in, 159–60, 162; expansion of, 160, 163; factional conflict in, 160–61; income from land grants in, 159; post-Charlemagne, 158, 161; taxes in, 159

  Carthage: in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113, 116–19, 521, 524; maritime exploration by, 430; population of, 549n6; as rival to Rome, 62, 77–78, 80, 91–100, 103, 109, 222, 439n4, 543n7, 546nn57–59, 549n4, 549nn6–9; troop numbers for, 551n30. See also First Punic War; Second Punic War

  Casale, Giancarlo, 447–48

  Catholic Church: counterfactual scenario for European unity and, 512–13, 601n33; creation of College of Cardinals, 171, 346; excommunication powers, 315–16, 347, 573n10; French education system and, 488; Great Schism (thirteenth century), 348; harmonization of canon law, 346, 514; Latin as lingua franca of, 517–18; Nicaean creed and, 519; papacy and, 171, 224, 346–48, 512; power of, 340, 345–48, 513; Reformation and, 370, 473–74; as victim of its own success, 348. See also Christianity; German empire; Holy Roman Empire

  cavalry warfare: Abbasids, 256; Carolingian Empire, 162; in China, 242–45, 248, 250, 252, 285, 570n56; Hellenistic kingdoms, 95; Huns, 295; in India, 296–300; Magyars, 293; Mongols, 175, 177, 181–82, 189; in Muscovy, 292; Parthians, 100; in Roman Empire, 77; steppe effect and, 275, 279–80

  Celtic language, 311, 312

  Celtic society, 522–23, 526

  Central America, 10, 46, 466. See also New World

  Chagatai khanate, 175, 183, 185

  Charlemagne (Frankish king), 35, 36, 154–56, 160–63, 171, 231, 240, 244, 267

  Charles the Bald (Frankish king), 161

  Charles the Fat (Frankish king), 157

  Charles Martel, 154, 160

  Charles V (Habsburg ruler and Holy Roman emperor), 193–98; abdication by, 198; army size and, 199; compared to Charlemagne, 199–200; counterfactual scenario for, 200–201, 203; credit to finance wars of, 199; fighting against France, 195, 196, 198; fiscal constraints in waging war and, 199–200; New World conquests by, 193, 196–97; Protestant Reformation and, 197–98

  Chen Qiang, 409

  China: as agrarian empire, 441–48; agrarian paternalism in, 406–7, 442; ancestor worship in, 321; bureaucracy in, 226–27, 248, 393; capture of population (not territory) as goal of, 242; censorship in, 404; Central Plain in, 264–65; civil service system in, 225, 244, 394; clans in, 408, 410–11, 542n4; commerce and trade in, 397, 442–46, 588n226; compared to Europe (post-1500), 392–96, 406, 411–13; compared to post-Roman Europe, 17, 23, 228, 243, 254–58, 320–28, 329–32, 331, 343–44, 562n30; compared to Roman empire, 72, 221–27, 294, 320, 505, 507; corruption in, 408–9, 506; cotton imports from India, 426; defined, 529; developmental outcomes of empire structure in, 342, 392–96, 400–407, 506, 583n138; ecology in, conducive to empire building, 252, 281–90; energy constraints on economic development in, 494; examination system in, 322, 394, 480, 563n46, 594n24; fiscal administration in, 251, 257, 395, 407–8, 585n190; fragmentation periods, relationship to innovation in, 396–400; fubing system in, 248, 251, 255; geography of, 261–64, 266–67, 282; Great Wall and other protective walls in, 285, 289, 437; hegemony and conservatism in, 479–85; Hundred Schools of Thought, 396; ideologies of empire in, 320–28, 329, 331; institutions, logic of, 392–96; land distribution in, 247, 248, 405; language and writing in, 308–9, 310, 312–13, 573n4, 594n23; Legalism in, 320–21, 322, 393; maritime commerce restrictions in, 402–3; migrants from, lack of homeland interest in protecting, 443–45; military mobilization and warfare in, 242–44, 246–51, 257, 3
97–99; modern China’s leadership from south, 569n49; Mongols in, 4, 175, 182–83, 189–90, 230, 285, 286, 398–99, 440, 558n20; monopolistic policymaking in, 400–407; mountains and rivers in, 261–64, 500; north/northwest as origin of unification events, 223, 224, 227, 244–53, 281–82, 289, 566n13; north-south split in, 230–31; overseas exploration not of interest to, 433, 441–46, 591n77; patronage in, 227, 395–96, 476, 481; patterns of empire in, 40–41, 41–42, 43–44, 44, 228, 279; Period of Disunion (fourth through sixth centuries CE), 43, 246–52, 254, 280, 318, 322, 397, 399; population of, 219, 249, 251, 288, 564n50, 587n224; post-Han China compared to post-Roman Europe, 13, 223, 251–52; post-nineteenth-century economic development in, 2; property rights in, 395; Qin-Han China compared to Roman Europe, 72, 221–27; rebellions occurring near end of individual dynasties in, 286–87, 406, 412, 570n61, 586n205; religion and belief systems in, 317–22, 328; serial empire reconstructions in, 9, 12, 224, 229, 246–53, 257, 395, 411; Sixteen Kingdoms period (304 to 439 CE), 227, 242, 284; social development (500 BCE–1500 CE) in, 5; stagnation in thinking and lack of alternative discourse in, 479–85; state formation in, compared to Europe, 228, 251–52, 394, 542n18; steppe effect and, 283–84, 286–90, 444, 452, 569n44, 570n62; tax practices in, 225, 245, 246–47, 252, 253, 257, 394–95, 397, 407–10; Three Kingdoms (mid-third century), 243; urbanization in, 394, 397–98, 442; Warring States period (pre-Qin), 72, 81, 222, 224, 230, 248, 283, 308, 320, 323–24, 327, 339, 393, 396, 406, 480, 481, 544n22, 551n29, 560n4, 575n33; waterworks and flood control in, 264, 499–500, 566n10; White Lotus rebellion (1790s), 412. See also Confucianism; East Asia; specific dynasties and empires

  Christianity: ascendance in Europe, 224, 314–17, 511, 518–19, 527; colonization and New World interests of, 450; comparison to Islamic and Chinese belief systems, 329; as divisive factor in Europe, 511–12; Eastern Church’s division, 316, 574n13; failure of empire-building and, 512–14; modernity and, 511, 516; state formation and, 317; as supraregional organization, 345–48. See also Catholic Church; Protestantism

  church. See Catholic Church; Christian Church; religion and beliefs; specific religions

  Cicero, 232

  cities. See urban development

  clans, 408, 410–11, 542n4

  Clark, Gregory, 497

  Claudius (Roman emperor), 81, 86, 239

  Clement VII (pope), 197

  coal, 6, 386–87, 425, 492, 494, 500, 537n7, 588n12, 597nn67–68

  colonial empires: conflict over, 449; as extensions of competing European polities, 538n17; slavery and, 388, 423–24. See also maritime exploration and expansion; New World; specific countries controlling colonial empires

  Columbus, Christopher, 193, 431, 439, 450, 462–64

  commercial transactions and credit: Bourgeois Revaluation, 489–90; Charles V using credit to finance wars, 199; in China, 398–99, 588n226; in Europe and England (post-1500), 356–57, 376, 381–82, 580n77, 581n103; low interest rates, effect of, 497; in Roman empire, 504; unifying set of customs and rule for, 516. See also mercantilism

  common law tradition, 378, 497, 498

  communalism, 14, 352–53, 376, 416, 474

  comparative scholarship, 21–22, 26, 502; analytical comparison between equivalent units, 23; premodern rule and, 42–48; variable-oriented parallel demonstration of theory, 23

  competition: (Second) Great Divergence and, 18; significance of, 15; stifled by empire, 17, 339–41, 343, 396

  Confucianism, 320–23, 393, 394, 395, 406, 442, 480, 482, 490, 583n143, 594n23

  Congjian Yan, Shuyu Zhouzilu, 437–38

  Conrad I (German ruler), 164

  Conrad II (German ruler), 166, 177

  Constantine I (Roman emperor), 194, 314, 508, 519, 601n33

  Constantinople, 135–36, 139, 140, 142–44, 148, 152, 204, 223; patriarch of, 316

  constitutionalism, 361, 375, 380

  Coptic language, 311

  corruption, 129, 342, 381, 403, 407–9, 506, 508

  Cosandey, David, 260

  cotton industry and trade, 424–27, 589n20

  Council of Chalcedon (451), 133, 346

  Council of Clermont (1095), 347

  Council of Nicaea (325), 346

  councils and synods, 348–51

  counterfactual, significance of use of, 23–26, 215, 540n39

  counterfactual scenario for France and England (seventeenth century), 208–10

  counterfactual scenario for Holy Roman Empire and Habsburgs, 200–201, 215, 512–13, 559n55

  counterfactual scenario for Mongol empire, 185–92, 215

  counterfactual scenario for Napoleon, 211–12, 215

  counterfactual scenario for Ottoman empire, 206–8

  counterfactual scenario for overseas exploration, 454–71; changing orientation to New World (East is West), 459–67, 460–61, 463; Chinese economic development, 468–71; shortcuts to access goods, 455–59

  counterfactual scenario for Roman empire, 11, 110–23, 521–26, 525, 602n45; eastern hostilities as source of, 111–20; Etruscization of Rome and, 552n2; Hannibal and Carthage as source of, 118–19, 521, 524, 553n16; Italian domestic developments as source of, 110–11, 120–22, 521; Macedonian intervention in Italy as source of, 114–17, 521, 553n17; Persian invasion of southern Italy as source of, 522, 552n5; Social War (91–89 BCE) as source of, 120; warfare between rival factions of Roman aristocracy as source of, 121, 554nn21–22

  counterfactual scenario for sixteenth-century European powers, 200–204

  counterfactual scenario for Song empire, 583n157

  Counter-Reformation, 484

  Crassus, 83

  credit. See commercial transactions and credit

  Crone, Patricia, 416, 587n219, 598n85

  Crusades, 176, 347

  culture and cultural unity, 307–34, 331; benefit of simultaneous fragmentation and cultural unity, 514–16; comparisons between Chinese and European systems, 328–30; counterfactual to Roman empire, effect on cultural unity, 522; First Great Divergence and, 307; hegemony and conservatism in China, India, and Middle East, 341, 479–85; Industrial Enlightenment and, 485–88; knowledge and scientific inquiry, 472–73; language and writing, 308–13, 476; polycentrism and Enlightenment, 473–79; (Second) Great Divergence and Industrial Revolution(s) and, 472–73; values of Enlightenment, 488–91. See also literacy rate; religion and beliefs

  Cumans, 175, 177, 291

  Cyrus II (Achaemenid king), 299

  da Gama, Vasco, 431, 439

  Daly, Jonathan, 538n13

  Daoism, 319, 321

  Dareios I (Achaemenid king), 299, 432

  Dead Sea Scrolls, 524

  De Angelis, Franco, 549n5

  decentralization, 145–46, 224, 228, 230, 232, 235, 240, 268, 561n24, 561n30

  De Crespigny, Rafe, 566n13, 575n44

  Demandt, Alexander, 128, 552n2, 552n5, 553n11, 553n16, 554n6

  democracy, 8, 538n11, 587n220

  Deng, Kent Gang, 279, 406, 586n205

  Denmark. See Scandinavian polities

  Descartes, René, 474, 478

  Diamond, Jared, 260, 263

  di Cosmo, Nicola, 287–88, 568n40

  Diet of Worms (1521), 197

  Dincecco, Mark, 358

  Diodorus, 549n5

  diversity, role of, 391, 414, 496

  Dong Zhonshu, 480

  Doyle, Michael, 102, 542n2, 550n10, 551n26

  Duchesne, Ricardo, 496

  Durand-Guédy, David, 587n219

  Dutch United Provinces, 356

  Dutschke, Rudi, 576n7

  East Asia: coastline compared to Europe, 261; defined, 33; divergence from European state formation, 220, 560n13; ecology of, 272, 281–90; geography of, 260–67, 262; imperial state formation in, 45, 45–47; mountains and rivers in, 261–64, 262; parallel of state formation to Roman empire, 220, 221–24; parallels of state formation in Europe with, 220, 221–24; patterns of empire, 10, 12, 40–42, 41–42, 43, 230; plain regions and natural core in, 264–66; polycentris
m not applicable to, 230, 418–19, 560n16; population of, 34, 35; size of, 33, 34. See also China

  Eastern Europe: failure to export to richer northwest, 427; Mongol incursion into, 174–75, 178; steppe effect and, 290–93; in tenth century, 268. See also specific countries

  East Francia, 157

  East India Company, 386, 451

  East Roman restoration (sixth century), 12, 132, 132–38, 134, 212–14

  ecology: East Asia, 281–90; Europe, 290–94; imperial state formation and, 47, 274, 276–80, 331, 332, 501; Iran, 298–301; Levant and North Africa, 301–2; Mongol invasion and, 181–82, 183, 192, 245, 278, 556n1, 557–58n18, 557n9; Roman empire’s demise and, 137; South Asia, 295–98; Southeast Asia, 303–4; volcanic activity resulting in famine (ninth century), 162. See also steppe effect

  economic development: East vs. West, 2, 2–5, 4, 7, 411–13, 537n3; gross domestic product (GDP) correlated with happiness and life evaluation, 8; modestly sized polities’ ability to flourish compared to quasi-imperial kingdoms, 415, 431, 494, 578n59; in post-1500 Europe, 370–75; post-nineteenth-century, 1, 6; in Roman empire, 505–6. See also Industrial Revolution(s); transformative developmental outcomes; specific countries and empires

  Egypt: Council of Chalcedon (451) and, 133; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 112; domestic turmoil in, 550n14; empire of eighth and seventh centuries BCE, 221, 302; Fatimid capture of (969), 151, 302; fiscal and tax practices in, 255, 565n71; horses and chariot warfare in, 301–2; Hyksos occupation of, 301; international trade with, 427, 457; language and writing in, 311; Middle Eastern political-military network (c. 1500–500 BCE), 90; Persia’s persistent problems with (525 to 332 BCE), 552n5; Roman conquest of, 83, 456, 457; Sasanians annexing, 135; Seleucids and, 521, 601n36. See also Ptolemies

  Eire, Carlos, 200–201, 203, 601n33

  Elvin, Mark, 403

  empire: adaptiveness of, 15; agrarian empires, 15, 397, 441–48; beneficial effect on social development, 4; capstone governments, 339, 342, 362, 407, 413, 414, 576n4; causes of demise of, 240–41; city-state–based empires, 543n7; defined, 529; factors leading to demise of, 129; failure of Europe to re-create after fall of Roman empire, 9, 10, 11, 16, 127–28, 131, 166, 168, 172–73, 214, 333, 496, 503; ideology of imperial unity, 320–28, 329, 331; imperiogenesis, 17, 461, 484, 501, 513–14; institutions, importance of, 326–27; measuring imperial dominance, 31–34; monopolistic, 15–17, 32, 38, 47, 204, 339, 341, 343; outside of Europe, durability of empire-bearing structures, 131; patterns of, 35–37, 35–48; perpetuation as negative factor for further development, 17, 341–42, 479–85; population as most meaningful measure of, 32, 213; population size of largest empires (700 BCE to 2000 CE), 15, 16; “shadow empire” model, 277–78, 568n40. See also specific empires and countries

 

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