Escape From Rome

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by Walter Scheidel


  Roman periphery, 89–109; benefit of Rome’s location, 89, 551–52n33; Carthage conflict with (third century BCE), 62, 77–78, 80, 91–100, 103, 104, 109, 546n57; characteristics of tribal peripheries, 551n26; compared to Qin China, 225; core and periphery as essential to rise of empire, 213, 225; core and periphery compared, 102–4, 548n1; critical preconditions for military success (mid-third- to mid-second-century BCE), 101, 103, 109, 222, 234; eastern periphery, 95–101, 538n14; failure to form single political-military network in eastern Mediterranean city-states, 91; Gallic conflicts (fourth century BCE to 225 BCE) and, 58, 77, 101, 116; Macedon, conflicts with, 92, 95–97, 99, 104; Mediterranean advantage of Rome, 104–9; Mediterranean divide, 89–92; Mediterranean political-military network (first millennium BCE), 91, 92; Middle Eastern political-military network (c. 1500–500 BCE), 90, 90; northern and western periphery, 101; routes of advance in, 106–8, 107; Sicily conflicts, 93–94; southern periphery, 93–94; stylized typology of peripheries, 102, 103; Syracuse conflicts, 91, 92, 93, 103; travel time and transportation cost in, 107, 107; troop deployment by region (200–168 BCE), 97–99, 98

  Rome, sacked by Charles V (1527), 197

  Rosenthal, Jean-Laurent, 358, 389, 492–93, 495, 496, 586n215, 597n60, 597n71, 598n85

  Rouran clan, 246, 247, 284, 287, 288, 399

  Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, 475

  Rudolf I (Habsburg ruler), 166

  Runciman, Walter, 553n7

  Russia: Golden Horde incursion into, 188–89; infrastructure development of, 453; khaganate of Rus’, 291; Kievan Rus’, 175, 291; Mongol’s effect on economy of, 189, 558n29; Muscovy, 193, 292; Orthodox Church and, 511; population size of, 37; pre-Napoleonic Wars, 269; size of Russian empire, 32, 538n14, 571n72; Tatars in, 189, 292

  Safavid Iran, 207–8, 301

  Saka empire, 40, 298, 299–300

  Salian dynasty, 165, 168–69, 170, 171, 173. See also German empire

  Samanid dynasty, 145, 301

  Samarra crisis, 145

  Sanskrit language, 329

  Sasanians, 38, 133, 135, 137, 139, 141, 215, 256, 295, 300

  scaling-up: challenge of city-state environment for, 54; challenge to Rome from tribal periphery, 130; co-optation of Rome and, 59, 79; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 120; of Germanic tribes to threaten Roman territory, 551n25; incorporating manpower of conquered regions into Roman military and, 63–64, 543n16; Middle Ages, failure to scale-up during, 128; military scaling up as essential to empire building, 233, 246; of steppe peoples, 274, 278–79

  Scandinavian polities, 156, 187, 197, 209, 228, 260, 268, 269, 294, 349, 430, 483, 484, 578n59. See also Vikings

  Scheidel, Walter, 539n21

  Schiavone, Aldo, 599n6

  Schmalkaldic League, 197, 199

  Schumpeterian growth, 79–80, 232, 341, 408, 507, 547n63

  Scythians, 290, 299

  (Second) Great Divergence, 13; causal conditions for, 337–44, 491, 497, 501; counterfactual derailing, 467; culture and, 472–73; defined, 530; European trade with New World and, 428; First Great Divergence paving way for, 231–32; First Industrial Revolution and, 425; fragmentation of power in Europe and, 343, 497; search for origins of, 19–26. See also Industrial Revolution(s)

  Second Punic War, 78, 121, 546n59, 549n9, 551n29

  sedentism, 32, 275, 277–79, 287, 295, 298, 305, 568n35

  Seleucid empire, 95–101; annual military outlays of, 550n21; ascent of, 117, 521; Cilician pirates as offshoot from failure of, 552n34; Egypt and, 521, 601n36; internal strife and fragmentation in, 550n14; military mobilization in, 104, 550n21, 551n30, 553n18, 554n18; navy of, 554n18; population of, 541n3; Roman provisioning in war against, 552n35; troop numbers for, 551n30, 553n18

  Seljuqs, 38, 278, 301, 317, 483

  Septimius Severus (Roman emperor), 86

  Shang dynasty, 282, 308, 323

  Siam, 47, 303, 435

  Sicily: in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113, 118, 553n6; French rule over (thirteenth century), 166; German campaigns against (960s), 165; Roman empire and, 91, 93–94, 103, 105, 549n3, 549n5; saved from Arab conquest (740), 136

  Sima Guang, 251

  Singhasari empire, 47

  Sivin, Nathan, 482

  slavery: British trade in, 424, 425, 426, 589n17; colonial trade and use of, 388, 423–24, 427, 466, 470; Genoa’s role in chattel slavery, 499; in Roman empire, 69, 74

  Slavic languages, 311–12

  Slavs, 135, 137, 139, 165, 175, 268, 294

  Smithian growth, 409, 412, 504, 507, 586n207

  Sng, Tuan-Hwee, 306, 573n102, 587n224

  social science scholarship, 19–20, 21

  social welfare, 539n26

  sociology scholarship, 20

  solar energy, 6

  Song empire: centralization of power in, 249; civil service system in, 394; Confucianism in, 322, 394; duration and scope of, 229; ending fragmentation of tenth century, 227, 231, 253, 285; imperial state formation, 41, 44, 249; kinship networks, rise of, 410, 411; military’s effect on economy of, 398, 584n168; money inflation in, 507; Mongol advance on, 175, 182–83, 187, 230, 231, 398, 558n20; population in, 564–65n67, 566n13; positive effect on economic development, 4, 285, 343, 398–99, 400, 403, 409, 440, 443, 585n199; steppe effect in, 282

  South Asia: conquests of, 417–18; cultural traits linked to state formation in, 330; defined, 33; ecology and, 276, 295–98; foreign conquest of, 415; fragmentation and fiscal structures in (fourth and fifth centuries), 257; fragmentation into regional states (from sixth to twelfth centuries), 297; geography of, 261, 266, 267, 270, 295, 333; imperial state formation in, 45, 45–47, 257; overseas exploration not of interest to, 446–47; patterns of empire, 10, 13, 39–42, 40; polycentrism not applicable to, 418–19; religious beliefs in, 329; size of, 34, 34; steppe effect and, 295–98, 572n89. See also India

  Southeast Asia: cultural traits linked to state formation in, 330; ecology of, 303–4; fragmentation in, 303; geography of, 267; imperial state formation in, 46–48; language and writing in, 329; patterns of empire in, 10; religious beliefs in, 328; steppe effect and, 303–4. See also specific countries

  Southern Song. See Song empire

  Spain: aristocracy in, 241; bullion imported from New World, 194, 233, 421–22; counterfactual in which Spain prevails over England (sixteenth century), 203–4; domestic conflict in, 376; failed invasion of England (Spanish Armada defeat 1588), 202, 378; New World colonies of, 201–2, 421, 426, 431, 444, 445, 449; obstruction of intellectual innovation in, 484, 487; representative assemblies in, 350; taxes and military commitments in, 369–70; Unions of Aragon and Valencia, 350. See also Iberian peninsula

  Sparta, 91

  Sri Lanka, 275, 433, 434, 446, 457

  Srivijaya empire, 47, 447, 543n7

  Stasavage, David, 353

  state: defined, 530–31; formal state, focus on, 43; survival of state structures, 539n23

  state formation: Christian Church and, 317; city-state culture and, 327; comparison of East and South Asia and Middle East with Europe, 419; in counterfactual scenario of no Roman empire, 524–26, 525; defined, 531; development dynamics of types of, 338, 339, 498; ecology and, 47, 274, 276–80, 331, 332, 501; geography and, 269–70; homogenization and, 268; imperial state formation and split of Christians into Catholics and Protestants, 197–98; imperial state formation in macro-regions, 9–10, 12, 43–48, 45, 268; in post-Roman Europe, 12, 63; Roman, 11, 52–58; test for effects of threat direction and strength on, 306, 567n33; Tilly’s capital-intensive mode of, 63, 67. See also culture and cultural unity; empire; monopoly; polycentrism; scaling-up

  state system: defined, 531; institutional development and, 391; productive dynamics of, 17, 344, 475; resilience of, 306, 501. See also institutions

  status quo, 508–10

  Staufers, 169–71, 173

  Stein, Peter, 516

  steppe effect, 245, 270–81, 271, 331; access to horses and, 181–82, 245–48, 252, 274–75, 278, 280�
�81, 284, 289, 296; China and, 283–84, 286–90, 399, 569n44, 570n62; conquests by steppe invaders, 274, 276–79, 563n30; defined, 531; Europe and, 290–94; India and, 295–98; Iran and, 298–301; Levant and North Africa and, 302, 333; on polity size, 306; proximity as factor in empire formation, 13, 271–72, 273–74, 275; Rome’s limited contact with steppe warriors, 571n80; shadow empires and, 277–78; size of steppe empires, 32; South Asia and, 295–98; Southeast Asia and, 303–4. See also Mongol empire

  Strabo, 85, 601n39

  Strayer, Joseph, 241, 514

  Sui empire, 281, 284, 289, 319, 397

  Sumerian empire, 543n7

  Sunni-Shia rift and competition, 145, 207

  Sweden. See Scandinavian polities

  Syracuse, 91, 92, 93, 103, 109, 222, 549n3; in counterfactual to Roman empire, 113, 114, 116; troop numbers for, 551n30

  Syria: Council of Chalcedon (451) and, 133; Parthians annexing, 601n36; Sasanians annexing, 135

  Syrian Wars (274 to 101 BCE), 96, 550n14

  Tabellini, Guido, 585n199

  Taiwan, 260, 402, 443, 445–46, 468

  Tang empire, 229; An Lushan rebellion (750s), 286; commercial development in, 397; conflict during, 289, 411; Confucianism in, 322; decentralization during, 230, 252; duration of, 43; ecology and, 280, 281; Huang Chao uprising (late ninth century), 286; imperial state formation in, 44, 228, 251, 284–85; positive effect on Chinese development, 4; religious beliefs in, 319; steppe effect and, 444

  Tatars in Russia, 189, 292

  taxes: in Arab conquest regions, 143, 144, 146–47, 148, 255–56; in Carolingian empire, 159; in China, 225, 245, 252, 253, 257, 394–95, 397, 407–10, 417, 433; comparing post-Roman Europe to Chinese Period of Disunion, 254–58; in England (post-1500), 379; in Europe (post-1500), 368–70, 579n65; in Habsburg territories, 202; in Mongol-controlled Russia, 189; in Mughal empire, 417; in Muscovy, 292; in Netherlands, 369–70, 579n65; in Ottoman empire, 206, 417, 565n73; in post-Roman Europe, 234–39, 254, 257; religious exemptions and, 315–16, 319, 320; in Roman empire, 61, 64, 72, 80, 81, 225, 234, 235, 506; in Umayyad caliphate, 143, 146, 148, 255

  Teutonic Order, 175, 292

  textile industry and trade, 386, 415, 423–25, 491–93, 581n115, 588n10, 597n60. See also cotton industry and trade

  Theodosius I (Roman emperor), 315

  Thermopylae, 99, 550n10

  Thirty Years’ War, 200, 269, 417

  Thomas, Robert, 380, 569n46

  Thracian languages, 311

  Tilly, Charles, 63, 67, 232

  Timurid empire, 296, 301, 563n30

  Toltec empire, 46

  Toynbee, Arnold, 116, 117, 553n12

  trade. See specific countries and empires

  Trajan (Roman emperor), 86

  transformative developmental outcomes, 501, 587n219; causes and trends of, 8–11, 495–500; demography as factor in, 497–99; ecology and geography, effects of, 501–2; Western exceptionalism, avoidance of, 502. See also ecology; First Great Divergence; geographic constraints and differences; Great Escape; Second Great Divergence

  Treaty of Meersen (870), 353

  Tuoba clan, 242, 246–47, 284, 287, 563nn47–48

  Turchin, Peter, 271, 275, 279, 280, 295, 569n46, 573n102

  Tvedt, Terje, 499

  Uighurs, 174, 285, 287

  Umayyad caliphate, 139–44, 140; Arab forces of, 142–43; compared to Roman empire, 213; conflict with Central Asian Turks, 301; demise of, 144, 150, 155; imperial consolidation under, 38; inability to maintain a large-scale empire in Europe, 147–48, 153, 267; integrity of ruling class in, 214; interregional rivalries among armies of, 144; naval blockades of Constantinople by, 135; overseas exploration not of interest to, 432; population of, 219; revenue collection in, 233; taxation in, 143, 146, 148, 255; tribal structures as limitation of, 143

  United States: American Civil War, 427; American Revolution and independence, 376, 589n20; Bourgeois Revaluation in, 490; cotton exports to Britain from, 425, 427; transformative economic development in, 2

  universities, founding of, 475, 485

  urban development: autonomy of cities, 345, 353–55, 577n28; in China, 394, 397–98, 442; in England, 371, 373–74, 581n99, 597n64; growth correlated with, 356–59; Protestantism and, 477; in Roman empire, 504; Roman road network and, 576n8; urbanization rates in Europe (post-1500), 371–76, 373–74, 580n82

  Vandals, 132, 134, 135, 138, 153

  van Zanden, Jan Luiten, 375, 496, 515, 585n185, 589n19, 597–98n73, 598n81

  Venice, 55, 58, 189, 206, 355, 369, 377, 430, 439, 450, 509

  Vespucci, Amerigo, 440

  Vietnam, 185, 192, 230, 267, 303, 306, 437, 457

  Vijayanagara empire, 297

  Vikings, 157–58, 161, 430, 465

  Visigoths, 132, 134, 135, 137, 138, 140, 148, 153, 239, 317, 349

  Vladimir the Great (Kievan ruler), 291

  Voigtländer, Nico, 499, 598n83

  Voltaire, 474

  Voth, Hans-Joachim, 499, 598n83

  Vries, Peer, 344, 391, 406, 497, 538n13, 539n22, 567n26, 576n7, 579n63, 582n131, 596n42, 596n44, 596n58

  Wallerstein, Immanuel, 420, 440

  Wang Anshi (Chinese chancellor), 405

  Wang Mang (Chinese regent), 405

  war and development, 9; England (post-1500), 382–90; European, 357–59, 579nn61–63, 586n207; financial development and, 368–69, 411, 581n102; increase in state capacity allowing for interstate conflict, 391; Roman empire and, 70–74, 79–82; social responses to warfare, 14; war-making capacity, 6–7. See also military mobilization

  Warde, Paul, 537n8

  War of the Spanish Succession, 208, 209

  Weber, Max, 23, 491, 596n58

  Weingast, Barry, 380

  Western Europe. See Europe

  Western Zhou. See Zhou regime

  West Francia, 157, 158, 164

  Wickham, Chris, 241, 539n23, 578n59

  William the Conqueror (English king), 239

  William of Orange, 203, 208–9

  Wittfogel, Karl, 264, 566n11

  Wong, Bin, 358, 389, 396, 413–14, 493, 495, 496, 586n215, 597n60, 597n71, 598n85

  World War II, 12, 41

  Wrigley, E. Anthony, 598n79

  writing. See language and writing

  Xerxes I (Achaemenid king), 112, 432

  Xianbei, 242, 244, 246–48, 255, 280, 284, 289

  Xiongnu, 174, 242, 244, 246, 251, 255, 283–88, 570nn53–54

  Yates, Robin D. D., 583n157

  Yuan empire, 229, 281, 403, 507

  Zhao, Dingxin, 393–94, 412, 583n144

  Zheng Chenggong, 445

  Zheng He (Chinese eunuch), 433, 439, 445, 468

  Zhenzong emperor, 241

  Zhou regime: demise of, 221, 222, 570n52; in heyday of empire, 281; language and writing in, 308; religious beliefs in, 319; steppe effect in, 282, 285, 286; unity as concept in, 323

  Zoroastrians, 207, 317

  Zwingli, Ulrich, 474

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