by Carlos Calle
What made the Newtonian system of the world the greatest scientific achievement?
Newton was the first person to discover a system based on experience, and from which one could obtain a wide range of phenomena by mathematical reasoning alone. His system explains the workings of the universe, from the motion of planets around the Sun to the motion of a pebble falling on a pond. This feat is nothing short of a miracle, and this miracle is due to the mind of Newton.
Others must have contributed. Galileo, for example?
Yes, they did – men like Kepler. But of Newton’s predecessors, it’s Galileo who towers above all others. His contributions reach almost as high as Newton’s. Starting from experience and using an ingenious method to isolate the motion of an object, Galileo was able to show that in the absence of forces, this object will maintain its existing state of motion and that if the object does change its speed or direction, it must be because of an external force.
In everyday experience, you must apply a force to keep an object moving. Without the engine going, a car eventually stops and a sailboat stalls with no breeze to push it. Yet Galileo says that no force is needed to keep an object moving?
That’s Galileo’s great achievement. He knew that in everyday experience, friction, as an external force, is always present. Lacking the technology to remove friction in reality, Galileo did so in his mind, thus isolating the moving object from all external forces. The object’s motion isn’t disturbed and the object remains moving forever. Newton learned this from Galileo. Newton understood immediately that these observations needed to be interpreted mathematically. To do this he invented calculus.
Was it the invention of calculus that made Newton the greatest genius?
No, calculus was merely a new language that allowed him to formulate the laws of motion. His quantification of the concept of the application of external forces to change the state of motion of an object led to his discovery of the fundamental concept of mass. That was a greater achievement. But he didn’t stop there. He used his new mathematical tool to demonstrate that the force that brings an apple down from a branch is the same force that keeps the moon in its orbit about the Earth. That was the astonishing leap that only the mind of Newton could have made. That achievement ranks as the greatest discovery in the history of humankind.
You’ve often mentioned your admiration for the work of James Clerk Maxwell. Do you regard him as close to the great Newton in the temple of science?
Not just Maxwell, but the twin geniuses Faraday and Maxwell. As a pair, I regard them as essentially equal to the Newton–Galileo pair in their contributions to science. Faraday extended the connection between electricity and magnetism that Ampère had discovered and invented the magnificent concept of fields of force. This was a new kind of physical reality that has been crucial for the development of present-day physics. The great Maxwell extended this work, gave it mathematical rigour, and produced the glorious theory of electromagnetism, teaching us among other things that electromagnetic fields spread as a wave with the speed of light. Maxwell discovered the nature of light!
You also mentioned Kepler. How influential was he?
Kepler provided the empirical mathematical laws on the motions of the planets that made Newton’s system of the world possible. Today, it’s hard to appreciate fully the ingenuity and assiduous work required to discover the planetary laws. His good fortune was that precise data on the positions of Mars was available to him. However, to calculate the orbit, he needed two fixed points in space. One was provided by the Sun, but where was the other to be found? The planets are all moving around the Sun. Kepler realized that Mars traverses a given point in space once during each orbit. Since he had the data, he selected one of the locations in the orbit as his second fixed point. These two points in space made it possible to use triangulation to calculate the orbits of the Earth and the other planets.
We’ve talked about the giants who preceded you. Were there any giants during your own time?
Planck and the great Bohr, to be sure. Max Planck’s law of radiation was the breakthrough that made possible the first exact determination of the correct sizes of atoms. More important, however, was his discovery of the atomistic structure of energy, a discovery that became the cornerstone of all 20th-century physics. And Bohr constructed the first mathematical model of the atom and guided the modern interpretation of quantum theory, which gave us the most complete – and in my opinion, not yet final – theory of matter.
Did any non-scientists influence your work in any way?
No. I built my scientific work on the findings of the scientists we just discussed. But several thinkers influenced my life and helped shape my beliefs. The work of the philosopher Benedict de Spinoza helped shape my thinking on God and religion, and my discovery of Mozart’s sonatas at a very early age triggered my lifelong love of music. The extraordinary lives of all these great men are a constant reminder that my inner and outer lives are based on the labours of other people, living and dead, and that I must exert myself in order to give in the same measure as I’ve received.
MUSICIAN AND SAILOR
Besides physics, Einstein passionately embraced two other activities throughout his life: music and sailing. He was a gifted musician and once stated that this was the only other profession he might have chosen. He revered the composers of the 18th century but had little interest in modern music or in the modern composers of his day, criticizing their “poverty of structure” and lack of “inner truth”. He took to sailing with gusto, too, sailing often and dismissing the safety concerns of others, never carrying life jackets, navigation charts or a backup engine. “If I have to drown, then let it be honestly,” he once said.
Professor Einstein, you’ve mentioned your love for music a couple of times. Is music important in your life?
Music is my passion. I can’t conceive of living without being able to play music. Besides physics, music is what gives me most joy. I see my life in terms of music. My violin accompanies me wherever I travel.
When did you learn to play the violin?
My mother Pauline, who was an accomplished pianist, decided that my sister Maja and I should be exposed to music from an early age. She enrolled us both in music lessons. I was six then. That’s when I chose the violin.
Most children don’t enjoy their music lessons. Did you?
For the most part, I didn’t. I disliked them very much, as I disliked any structured learning activity. I detested the antiquated mechanical methods used by the instructors, but when I was about 13, I discovered Mozart’s sonatas, and my interest in music picked up. I wanted to be able to reproduce the unique and wonderful grace of Mozart’s music. That’s when my real learning started. Regrettably, my formal instruction continued only for about one more year. But, by attempting to play those beautiful sonatas, I was able to advance my technique. I believe I always learned anything better on my own.
Did your mother ever give you any music instruction?
Not really. However, after the lessons ended, I’d play duets with her, my mother on the piano and me on the violin. That became a tradition for us throughout her life. There was always a great deal of wonderful music playing in our home.
Did you play any other instrument?
I taught myself to play the piano. I was adequate at it. Playing the piano relaxes me. Often, when I come across some difficulty in my calculations, playing a few chords on the piano helps steer my mind towards a clear path. Music is magnificent for the mind.
Who were your favorite composers?
Certainly, Mozart and Bach – I listen to, play, love and revere their music. I admire Beethoven, but I think he’s too dramatic. I like Schubert because of his exceptional talent for expressing emotion. I also like the smaller works of Schumann because they are very original and have intense feeling. Brahms composed good chamber music, but most of his other works aren’t convincing for me. I enjoy Vivaldi, Scarlatti and Corelli. I play Mozart and Beethoven sonatas
the most. This music always inspires me.
Is music your diversion from your work?
No, music is simply part of my life. When I play music I’m not working, but I don’t play music to get away from my work. Music and research work are nourished by the same sort of longing, and they complement each other in the release they offer.
What activity do you pursue when you want to relax?
I’ve enjoyed sailing since my student days in Zurich. But I’m not so talented in this art, and I’m satisfied if I can manage to get myself off the sandbanks on which I from time to time become lodged.
Any memorable experiences from your sailing days?
Once, while attending a scientific conference in Geneva with Marie Curie, we found ourselves with some free time and I invited her to go sailing. When we were out in the middle of the lake, she said to me that she didn’t know I was a good sailor. I replied, “Neither did I.” Then she asked me what we’d do if the boat should overturn. “I can’t swim,” she said. “Neither can I,” I replied.
Do you take your work with you when you go sailing?
I usually have a notebook with me for the occasions when there’s no wind. I’m always striving to uncover the mysteries of nature, and feel that every minute I can spend on my work will bring me closer to discovering them.
Is your mind ever far from your science?
Not often. Music is perhaps the exception. I feel deeply the music I play or listen to. But seeking to discover nature’s secrets is exhilarating, and this joyous activity constantly fills my mind. To be a scientist is to remain a child all through one’s life, always marvelling at the discovery of another wonderful phenomenon, always longing to eat at the Tree of Knowledge.
Your thoughts on this, Professor, lead me to my final question. Is science, with all its present shortcomings, on the right path to discovering nature’s secrets?
Yes, I firmly believe that, in general, science is on the right path. But science is still in its infancy. One thing I’ve learned in a long life is that all our science, measured against reality, is primitive and childlike – and yet, it’s the most precious thing we have.
NOTES
p.1 “To be called …” Ideas and Opinions (New York: Crown Publishers, 1954), p.15.
p.1 “If A is …” The New York Times, 18 August 1929. Quoted in A. Pais, Einstein Lived Here (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p.152.
p.12 “Not a hint of …” Letter to Jules Isaac, Princeton, 28 February 1955. Quoted in A. Fölsing, Einstein: A Biography (New York and London: Viking, 1997), p.725.
p.12 “to find the facts …” “Autobiographical Notes”, in Albert Einstein, Philosopher Scientist, ed. P.A. Schilpp (London: Cambridge University Press; La Salle il: Open Court, 1949), p.47.
p.14 “at such a time …” To Paul Ehrenfest, Berlin, 19 August 1914. Einstein, A Biography, p.343.
p.14 “I would …” Interview with Die Wahlheith of Prague, 1929. Quoted in R.W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (New York: World Publishing, 1971), p.351.
p.16 “through something basically simple …” To Cornelius Lanczos, 14 February 1938. Quoted in H. Dukas and B. Hoffman, Albert Einstein: The Human Side (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979), p.60.
p.17 “I am … barely penetrate” To Queen Elizabeth of Belgium, 20 March 1936. Ibid., p.45.
p.18 “He never wore … inside his shoes” Private conversation with Mrs Harlow in McLean, VA, 11 November 2006.
p.18 “All I’ll want …” Maria Winteler-Einstein, “Albert Einstein, A Biographical Sketch,” in The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 1 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987), p.14.
p.29 “I promise …” Letter to Conrad Habicht, May 1905. The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, Vol. 5, Doc. 27 (Princeton nj: Princeton University Press, 1995), p.31.
pp.41–2 here’s yet … for the English. Out of My Later Years (London: Greenwood Press, 1956; New York: Random House, 1970), p.57 (slightly adapted for the purposes of conversation).
p.56 Then, I would … is correct. I. Rosenthal-Schneider, Erinnerungen an Gespräche mit Einstein manuscript, 23 July 1957; also I. Rosenthal-Schneider, Begegnunger mit Einstein, von Laue, Planck (Braunschweig, 1988). See Einstein: A Biography, p.439.
p.61 I, at any … playing dice. Letter to Max Born, December 4, 1926. The Born-Einstein Letters 1916–1955 (Basingstoke: Houndsmills; New York: Macmillan Press, 2005), p.88.
p.62 “This result … importance” Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik, 4 (1907), p.442.
p.62 “the line … trick on me.” Letter to Conrad Habicht (autumn 1905, undated).
p.66 “Sir: Some recent …” Letter to President Roosevelt, 2 August 1939, The Albert Einstein Archives (The Jewish National and University Library, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel), 33–143.
pp.68–9 I believe … murder. Letter to the editor of Japanese magazine Kaizo, 22 September 1952. Quoted in O. Nathan and H. Nordern, Einstein on Peace, pp.584–89 (Einstein Archives, 60-039).
p.69 I am a dedicated … end in itself. Letter to Seiei Shinohara, 23 June 1953 (Einstein Archives, 61–297).
p.70 I do not … – rocks! Interview with Alfred Warner, Liberal Judaism 16 (April–May 1949), p.12, (Einstein Archives, 30–1104).
p.71 if every effort … tear for them. Letter to Maurice Solovine, Princeton, 7 May 1952, in Letters to Solovine (New York: Philosophical Library, 1987), p.137.
p.72 “After an unremitting …” Quoted in B. Hoffmann, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel (New York: The Viking Press, 1972), p.225.
p.76 What really interests … freedom at all. Ernest Straus, in Helle Zeit-Dunkle Zeit, p.72. See Albert Einstein, A Biography, p.736.
p.76 Who knows … mischievous. Letter to Hermann Weyl. Quoted in Einstein: The Life and Times, p.613.
p.83 I believe in … human beings. Reply to Rabbi Herbert S. Goldstein, New York Times, 25 April 1929, p.60. Quoted in M. Jammer, Einstein and Religion (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p.48.
p.83 the laws of … feel humble. Letter to a young girl, 24 January 1936, reproduced in Weltwoche, 19 August 1981, p.37. Quoted in Einstein Lived Here, p.117.
p.86 I maintain … scientific research. “Religion and Science”, New York Times, 9 November 1930, pp.1–4. Reproduced in Ideas and Opinions, p.39.
p.88 With me … solo. To Paul Ehrenfest, 21 March 1930. Quoted in Albert Einstein: The Human Side, p.17.
p.90 who inherited … goal. Letter to Hans Albert Einstein, 11 May 1954 (Einstein Archives, 75-918.)
pp.93–4 a kind … curiosity. Letter to Erich Mühsam, Princeton, spring 1942, in Helle Zeit-Dunkle Zeit, p.50, see Einstein: A Biography, p.732.
p.96 But the striving … greatest. Albert Einstein note to Dr Hans Mühsam, 1920, see Albert Einstein: The Human Side, p.19.
p.101 my inner … received. Ideas and Opinions, p.9.
p.102 “If I have …” Einstein: A Biography, p.685.
p.103 I see … music. Interview with George Sylvester Viereck, “What Life Means to Einstein”, Saturday Evening Post, October 26, 1929.
p.105 are … offer. Letter to Paul Plaut, 23 October 1928. (Einstein Archives, 28-065); also in Albert Einstein: The Human Side, p.78.
p.106 But I am not … become lodged. Letter to Queen Elizabeth of Belgium, 20 March 1954 (Einstein Archives, 32–385).
p.107 One thing … we have. In a letter to Hans Mühsam, July 9, 1951 (Einstein Archives, 38–408).
FURTHER READING
BOOKS
There is a substantial bibliography on Einstein’s life and work. The books range from textbooks on his scientific work to biographies aimed at the general reader. In this list I have chosen the best books for general readers currently in print.
M. Born, Einstein’s Theory of Relativity (New York: Dover Publications, 1962)
C.I. Calle, Einstein for Dummies (Hoboken: Wiley, 2005)
R.W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (
New York: The World Publishing Company, 1971)
H. Dukas and B. Hoffmann, Albert Einstein: The Human Side (Chichester, West Sussex and Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1979)
A. Einstein, The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein, 10 vols. (Chichester, West Sussex and Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1987–2006)
Autobiographical Notes (London and New York: Open Court, 1979)
Ideas and Opinions (New York and London: Crown Publishers, Random House, 1954)
Letters to Solovine (New York: Philosophical Library, 1987; London: Citadel Press, 1993)
Out of My Later Years (London and New York: Wings Books, Random House, 1956)
Relativity: The Special and the General Theory (London and New York: Penguin, 2006)
The Born–Einstein Letters (London and New York: Macmillan, 2005)
The World As I See It (New York: Citadel Press, 2007)
A. Einstein and L. Infeld, The Evolution of Physics (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1967)
A. Fölsing, Albert Einstein: A Biography (London and New York: Viking, 1997)
B. Hoffmann, Albert Einstein, Creator and Rebel (New York: Viking, 1972)
W. Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (London and New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007)
M. Jammer, Einstein and Religion (Chichester, West Sussex and Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002)
T. Levenson, Einstein in Berlin (London and New York: Bantam, 2003)
A. Pais, “Subtle is the Lord …”: The Science and Life of Albert Einstein (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1982)
Einstein Lived Here (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994)
