viral entry and, 45, 137–142
Spirits, demons, and divine punishment, 2–3
Spontaneous generation theory, 28
Starkloff, Max, 119–121
St. Louis during 1918 influenza pandemic, 119–121
Subunit vaccines, 159–162
Surveillance, ongoing, 182–183
Sweden, COVID-19 in, 128–129
Swine flu pandemic (2009), 61
T-cell receptor (TCR), 88–89, 92, 99
T cells (T lymphocytes), 154
adaptive immune system and, 85, 87–90, 91f, 92–93
antibodies and, 89, 99, 155
B cells and, 88, 89, 99
cytokines and, 93, 96, 99
drugs and, 89, 90
genes and, 87–90
HLA and, 87–88, 90, 91f, 92–93, 99, 154, 177
killer, 93, 99, 154–156, 178
nature of, 85, 87, 92
peptides and, 90, 92
proteins and, 92, 99
thymus and, 87, 92
vaccines and, 101, 155–157, 159, 174, 178
viruses and, 85, 87, 88, 91f, 92–93, 99–101, 136, 138, 154–157, 160, 174, 177, 178
Temin, Howard, 48
Thymus, 86, 87, 92
Toll-like receptors, 95
Tonegawa, Susumu, 77
Toussaint, Jean Joseph Henri, 32
Transmissibility. See Basic reproductive number
Transmission, community. See Community spread
Transplantation, organ, 86–87
Tuberculosis (TB), 24–25, 35
Tumor necrosis factor (TNF), 95
Unanue, Emil, 89–90
United Kingdom, 128. See also British royal family
Urbani, Carlo, 104, 115
Vaccination. See also specific topics
goal of, 155
a new paradigm for, 29–33
Pasteur and, 15, 29–33, 35, 157
origin of the term, 13, 15
Vaccine candidates, clinical trials of, 164–167
phases in, 164–167, 169–170, 175
Vaccine development
discovery phase, 164
examples of, 167–179
Vaccines, 183–185. See also specific topics
how they work, 154–156
spike proteins and, 154, 155, 159–161, 174, 175, 177
types of
DNA and RNA vaccines, 162–164
killed or inactivated vaccines, 158–159
live attenuated vaccines, 30–31, 156–159, 169, 171, 172 (see also Variolation)
subunit vaccines, 159–162
and viral replication, 161–162
Vaccine safety, 178–180
Van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie Philips, 20–22
microscope, 20, 21f
Variolation
British Royal Society and, 8–9
cowpox and, 11, 12, 157
dangers, 157
history of, 8–10, 15
variolation replaced by vaccination, 15
Jenner and, 11–12
procedure, 11, 157
safety, 13, 157, 179
smallpox, 9–11, 29–30, 157
used by British royal family, 9, 10, 179
Vectors, viral, 162, 173, 174
Vietnam, 116. See also Urbani, Carlo
Viral entry
blocking, 139–142
spike proteins and, 45, 137–142
Viral replication, 36–39, 44, 137
blocking, 142–143, 144f, 145, 154, 161–162
antiviral drugs for, 136, 137, 142, 143, 145, 148, 149
interferons, 96–98
in DNA viruses, 46, 143
fever and, 96
genome and, 138, 142, 143
in HIV, 145, 177
and mutation, 148 (see also Mutations)
in retroviruses, 48
in RNA viruses, 46–48, 142
spike proteins and, 45
vaccines and, 161–162
viruses need (human) host for, 44–49
Viral vectors, 162, 173, 174
Virulence. See Basic reproductive number
Viruses, 46. See also specific topics
how they enter our cells, 45
identifying, 136–137
out eternal war with, 36–39
types of, 45–49
Von Behring, Emil, 70–71
Weather and virus spread, 59, 109
“Weathering the storm,” 123–130
social distancing and, 123, 124, 128, 130
Weller, Thomas, 136, 169
Wiley, Donald, 90
World War I, xii, 120
Wuhan, China, 52, 57, 116, 117, 122–123
Yellow fever, 155–156
Yersinia pestis, xii. See also Bubonic plague
Zika virus epidemic of 2015–2016, 128, 174
Zinkernagel, Rolf M., 87–90, 92
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