18.28 Mourners often cut themselves during funeral rites, and Baal worshipers may have done the same in an attempt to release the god from the power of death (Lev 19.28; Deut 14.1; Jer 16.6; 41.5; 47.5; Hos 7.14).
18.29 Oblation, an offering made around sunset (Ex 29.39).
18.32 The significance of the two measures of seed is unclear.
18.34 Note again the number three in ritual contexts (cf. 17.21). The water probably serves to both symbolize the rain that is coming and underscore the decisiveness of God’s response.
18.40 Elijah executes the prophets in accordance with the Deuteronomic law prescribing death as the penalty for prophets who advocate the worship of other gods (Deut 13.1–5). The Wadi Kishon runs between Mount Carmel and the Galilean hills.
18.41–46 Now that the people have acknowledged that there is only one God in Israel (v. 39), Elijah speaks the word to end the drought (cf. 17.1).
18.41 Although there is still no sign of rain, Elijah knows that it is coming (v. 1), and he instructs Ahab to begin celebrating the end of the drought.
18.42–44 The purpose of Elijah’s ritual is unclear.
18.45 In addition to a palace in the capital (Samaria), Ahab also had a royal residence in the town of Jezreel at the foot of Mount Gilboa (21.1).
18.46 Possessed by God’s spirit, Elijah runs about seventeen miles to Jezreel in front of Ahab’s chariot.
1 KINGS 19
Elijah Flees from Jezebel
1Ahab told Jezebel all that Elijah had done, and how he had killed all the prophets with the sword. 2Then Jezebel sent a messenger to Elijah, saying, “So may the gods do to me, and more also, if I do not make your life like the life of one of them by this time tomorrow.” 3Then he was afraid; he got up and fled for his life, and came to Beer-sheba, which belongs to Judah; he left his servant there.
4But he himself went a day’s journey into the wilderness, and came and sat down under a solitary broom tree. He asked that he might die: “It is enough; now, O LORD, take away my life, for I am no better than my ancestors.” 5Then he lay down under the broom tree and fell asleep. Suddenly an angel touched him and said to him, “Get up and eat.” 6He looked, and there at his head was a cake baked on hot stones, and a jar of water. He ate and drank, and lay down again. 7The angel of the LORD came a second time, touched him, and said, “Get up and eat, otherwise the journey will be too much for you.” 8He got up, and ate and drank; then he went in the strength of that food forty days and forty nights to Horeb the mount of God. 9At that place he came to a cave, and spent the night there.
Then the word of the LORD came to him, saying, “What are you doing here, Elijah?” 10He answered, “I have been very zealous for the LORD, the God of hosts; for the Israelites have forsaken your covenant, thrown down your altars, and killed your prophets with the sword. I alone am left, and they are seeking my life, to take it away.”
Elijah Meets God at Horeb
11He said, “Go out and stand on the mountain before the LORD, for the LORD is about to pass by.” Now there was a great wind, so strong that it was splitting mountains and breaking rocks in pieces before the LORD, but the LORD was not in the wind; and after the wind an earthquake, but the LORD was not in the earthquake; 12and after the earthquake a fire, but the LORD was not in the fire; and after the fire a sound of sheer silence. 13When Elijah heard it, he wrapped his face in his mantle and went out and stood at the entrance of the cave. Then there came a voice to him that said, “What are you doing here, Elijah?” 14He answered, “I have been very zealous for the LORD, the God of hosts; for the Israelites have forsaken your covenant, thrown down your altars, and killed your prophets with the sword. I alone am left, and they are seeking my life, to take it away.” 15Then the LORD said to him, “Go, return on your way to the wilderness of Damascus; when you arrive, you shall anoint Hazael as king over Aram. 16Also you shall anoint Jehu son of Nimshi as king over Israel; and you shall anoint Elisha son of Shaphat of Abel-meholah as prophet in your place. 17Whoever escapes from the sword of Hazael, Jehu shall kill; and whoever escapes from the sword of Jehu, Elisha shall kill. 18Yet I will leave seven thousand in Israel, all the knees that have not bowed to Baal, and every mouth that has not kissed him.”
Elisha Becomes Elijah’s Disciple
19So he set out from there, and found Elisha son of Shaphat, who was plowing. There were twelve yoke of oxen ahead of him, and he was with the twelfth. Elijah passed by him and threw his mantle over him. 20He left the oxen, ran after Elijah, and said, “Let me kiss my father and my mother, and then I will follow you.” Then Elijaha said to him, “Go back again; for what have I done to you?” 21He returned from following him, took the yoke of oxen, and slaughtered them; using the equipment from the oxen, he boiled their flesh, and gave it to the people, and they ate. Then he set out and followed Elijah, and became his servant.
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a Heb he
19.1–18 Elijah’s efforts to flee from Jezebel’s wrath inadvertently lead him to reverse Israel’s journey through the wilderness until he arrives at Mount Horeb (Sinai), the sacred spot where Israel’s covenant with God was first made (Ex 19–34). Throughout the narrative there are a number of allusions to Moses, and it is clear that for the Deuteronomistic narrator Elijah is to be considered a prophet “like Moses” (Deut 18.9–22).
19.3 Beer-sheba, a city in the northern Negeb desert, marks the traditional southern boundary of Judah, so Elijah is well beyond Jezebel’s reach.
19.4 Like Moses before him, Elijah felt that he was not up to the task of providing religious leadership for Israel (cf. Num 11.11–15).
19.8 Elijah’s journey of forty days and forty nights recalls Israel’s forty-year sojourn in the wilderness and also the forty days and nights that Moses spent at Sinai, where he did not eat or drink until he had written down the words of God’s covenant (Ex 34.27–28).
19.9 Cave, perhaps an allusion to be the cleft in the rock where Moses was shielded from God’s glory (Ex 33.17–23).
19.10 Elijah’s state of depression causes him to exaggerate the problem. There are certainly faithful worshipers of the Lord left in Israel, and Elijah is not the only remaining prophet (17.24; 18.3–4).
19.11–12 Wind, earthquake, and fire were traditionally associated with God (Ex 19.16; 20.18; Deut 4.11; 5.22–24; Judg 5.4–5; Isa 30.27; Nah 1.3–5; Ps 18.11–15; 68.7–8), but for the Deuteronomistic narrator, God is not to be identified with these natural phenomena. Sound of sheer silence, uncertain. This translation suggests that no new revelation followed the appearance of the wind, earthquake, and fire, for the text does not indicate that God was in the silence either. Other renderings are “a gentle little breeze,” “the sound of a light whisper,” and the traditional “still small voice.” The latter two translations suggest that some sort of verbal revelation did take place.
19.13a Elijah does not leave the safety of the cave until after the storm, which he heard but did not see.
19.14 Whatever the import of the storm and the silence, the events apparently made no impression on the prophet, who simply repeats his earlier answer (v. 10).
19.15 This time God’s response is to issue a new prophetic commission. Wilderness of Damascus, the Syrian desert. Elijah’s successor, Elisha, actually legitimizes Hazael as ruler of Aram (Syria; 2 Kings 8.7–15). The command to anoint a foreign ruler indicates God’s control over political affairs outside Israel.
19.16 Elisha also anoints Jehu, who finally overthrows the dynasty of Omri and wipes out Baal worship in Israel (2 Kings 9–10).
19.18 Kissing the image or symbol of Baal was apparently a common act of worship (Hos 13.2).
19.19–21 Almost immediately Elijah fulfills the third of God’s commands (v. 16).
19.19 Elijah does not actually anoint Elisha, but the meaning of his symbolic act is clear.
19.20 Elisha’s request indicates that he does not yet have the determination to be Elijah’s successor. Elijah’s response sug
gests that he wants nothing to do with disciples who are not completely focused on the task at hand.
19.21 The slaughter of the animals is an irrevocable act indicating that Elisha is willing to make a decisive break with his past life.
1 KINGS 20
Ahab’s Wars with the Arameans
1King Ben-hadad of Aram gathered all his army together; thirty-two kings were with him, along with horses and chariots. He marched against Samaria, laid siege to it, and attacked it. 2Then he sent messengers into the city to King Ahab of Israel, and said to him: “Thus says Ben-hadad: 3Your silver and gold are mine; your fairest wives and children also are mine.” 4The king of Israel answered, “As you say, my lord, O king, I am yours, and all that I have.” 5The messengers came again and said: “Thus says Ben-hadad: I sent to you, saying, ‘Deliver to me your silver and gold, your wives and children’ 6nevertheless I will send my servants to you tomorrow about this time, and they shall search your house and the houses of your servants, and lay hands on whatever pleases them,a and take it away.”
7Then the king of Israel called all the elders of the land, and said, “Look now! See how this man is seeking trouble; for he sent to me for my wives, my children, my silver, and my gold; and I did not refuse him.” 8Then all the elders and all the people said to him, “Do not listen or consent.” 9So he said to the messengers of Ben-hadad, “Tell my lord the king: All that you first demanded of your servant I will do; but this thing I cannot do.” The messengers left and brought him word again. 10Ben-hadad sent to him and said, “The gods do so to me, and more also, if the dust of Samaria will provide a handful for each of the people who follow me.” 11The king of Israel answered, “Tell him: One who puts on armor should not brag like one who takes it off.” 12When Ben-hadad heard this message—now he had been drinking with the kings in the booths—he said to his men, “Take your positions!” And they took their positions against the city.
Prophetic Opposition to Ahab
13Then a certain prophet came up to King Ahab of Israel and said, “Thus says the LORD, Have you seen all this great multitude? Look, I will give it into your hand today; and you shall know that I am the LORD.” 14Ahab said, “By whom?” He said, “Thus says the LORD, By the young men who serve the district governors.” Then he said, “Who shall begin the battle?” He answered, “You.” 15Then he mustered the young men who served the district governors, two hundred thirty-two; after them he mustered all the people of Israel, seven thousand.
16They went out at noon, while Ben-hadad was drinking himself drunk in the booths, he and the thirty-two kings allied with him. 17The young men who served the district governors went out first. Ben-hadad had sent out scouts,b and they reported to him, “Men have come out from Samaria.” 18He said, “If they have come out for peace, take them alive; if they have come out for war, take them alive.”
19But these had already come out of the city: the young men who served the district governors, and the army that followed them. 20Each killed his man; the Arameans fled and Israel pursued them, but King Ben-hadad of Aram escaped on a horse with the cavalry. 21The king of Israel went out, attacked the horses and chariots, and defeated the Arameans with a great slaughter.
22Then the prophet approached the king of Israel and said to him, “Come, strengthen yourself, and consider well what you have to do; for in the spring the king of Aram will come up against you.”
The Arameans Are Defeated
23The servants of the king of Aram said to him, “Their gods are gods of the hills, and so they were stronger than we; but let us fight against them in the plain, and surely we shall be stronger than they. 24Also do this: remove the kings, each from his post, and put commanders in place of them; 25and muster an army like the army that you have lost, horse for horse, and chariot for chariot; then we will fight against them in the plain, and surely we shall be stronger than they.” He heeded their voice, and did so.
26In the spring Ben-hadad mustered the Arameans and went up to Aphek to fight against Israel. 27After the Israelites had been mustered and provisioned, they went out to engage them; the people of Israel encamped opposite them like two little flocks of goats, while the Arameans filled the country. 28A man of God approached and said to the king of Israel, “Thus says the LORD: Because the Arameans have said, ‘The LORD is a god of the hills but he is not a god of the valleys,’ therefore I will give all this great multitude into your hand, and you shall know that I am the LORD.” 29They encamped opposite one another seven days. Then on the seventh day the battle began; the Israelites killed one hundred thousand Aramean foot soldiers in one day. 30The rest fled into the city of Aphek; and the wall fell on twenty-seven thousand men that were left.
Ben-hadad also fled, and entered the city to hide. 31His servants said to him, “Look, we have heard that the kings of the house of Israel are merciful kings; let us put sackcloth around our waists and ropes on our heads, and go out to the king of Israel; perhaps he will spare your life.” 32So they tied sackcloth around their waists, put ropes on their heads, went to the king of Israel, and said, “Your servant Ben-hadad says, ‘Please let me live.’” And he said, “Is he still alive? He is my brother.” 33Now the men were watching for an omen; they quickly took it up from him and said, “Yes, Ben-hadad is your brother.” Then he said, “Go and bring him.” So Ben-hadad came out to him; and he had him come up into the chariot. 34Ben-hadadc said to him, “I will restore the towns that my father took from your father; and you may establish bazaars for yourself in Damascus, as my father did in Samaria.” The king of Israel responded,d “I will let you go on those terms.” So he made a treaty with him and let him go.
A Prophet Condemns Ahab
35At the command of the LORD a certain member of a company of prophetse said to another, “Strike me!” But the man refused to strike him. 36Then he said to him, “Because you have not obeyed the voice of the LORD, as soon as you have left me, a lion will kill you.” And when he had left him, a lion met him and killed him. 37Then he found another man and said, “Strike me!” So the man hit him, striking and wounding him. 38Then the prophet departed, and waited for the king along the road, disguising himself with a bandage over his eyes. 39As the king passed by, he cried to the king and said, “Your servant went out into the thick of the battle; then a soldier turned and brought a man to me, and said, ‘Guard this man; if he is missing, your life shall be given for his life, or else you shall pay a talent of silver.’ 40While your servant was busy here and there, he was gone.” The king of Israel said to him, “So shall your judgment be; you yourself have decided it.” 41Then he quickly took the bandage away from his eyes. The king of Israel recognized him as one of the prophets. 42Then he said to him, “Thus says the LORD, ‘Because you have let the man go whom I had devoted to destruction, therefore your life shall be for his life, and your people for his people.’” 43The king of Israel set out toward home, resentful and sullen, and came to Samaria.
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a Gk Syr Vg: Heb you
b Heb lacks scouts
c Heb He
d Heb lacks The king of Israel responded
e Heb of the sons of the prophets
20.1–12 The first of several stories set against the background of Israel’s wars with Aram (modern Syria). After being subdued by David (2 Sam 8.5–12), the Arameans began to harass Israel during Solomon’s reign (11.23–25) and continued to do so intermittently thereafter.
20.1 On Ben-hadad ’s earlier interactions with Israel, see 15.18–21.
20.6 Ben-hadad’s second demand would have allowed the Arameans to take anything they wanted from the royal palace.
20.11 Ahab’s reply quotes a proverb warning Ben-hadad not to be too confident about the outcome of the battle.
20.12 Booths, temporary shelters in which the army lived in the field.
20.13–22 This part of the narrative is unusual in that it indicates prophetic support for Ahab rather than the opposition that characterizes most of th
e stories about his reign.
20.16 Kings, rulers of individual cities.
20.20–21 Israel’s decisive victory against superior forces indicates that God supplied divine aid.
20.22 Spring was the traditional time for beginning a military campaign (2 Sam 11.1).
20.23–34 The second engagement between Israel and Aram is treated as an example of a religious war, which should have been conducted according to the regulations laid down in Deut 20. From the perspective of the narrator the spoil should have been devoted to the deity, and the enemy should have been killed.
20.23 The Aramean civil servants assume that because Israel’s God is often associated with mountains (Sinai), the Lord’s power is restricted to mountain areas. Readers already know that God’s power extends beyond Israel’s national boundaries (19.15).
20.24 Commanders, probably Ben-hadad’s own officials, who are thus thought to be more professional and strongly motivated than the kings, who as semi-independent rulers are looking out for their own interests.
20.26 Several towns bear the name Aphek, but the one mentioned here probably lies about three miles east of the Sea of Galilee.
20.28 Man of God. See note on 13.1.
20.31 Sackcloth, a dark-colored cloth of goats’ hair or camels’ hair originally used to make grain sacks. Made into a garment, it was worn in times of mourning or national distress (Gen 37.34; 2 Sam 3.31; Lam 2.10). It was also worn by captives as a sign of submission.
20.32 Brother, a term used in treaties to indicate that the parties involved are of equal status.
20.35–43 Although Ahab may see his victory as an opportunity to regain lost territory and establish peace, the prophet in this story sees the outcome as a violation of the terms of the religious war (Deut 20). For a similar story involving Saul and Samuel, see 1 Sam 15.
20.35 Company of prophets, one of the prophetic guilds that were active in Israel during this period. The striking was apparently intended to make the prophet look as if he had been in a battle.
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