18.23 Chorus. See note on 8.4. Immortal. See note on 9.22; Wis 8.19.
18.24 See Rom 11.36; 16.27; 2 Tim 4.18; Heb 13.21.
THE NEW COVENANT
Commonly Called
THE NEW TESTAMENT
of Our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ
NEW REVISED STANDARD VERSION
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A Table of Parallel Passages in the Four Gospels
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This table indicates where equivalent or similar passages occur in the four Gospels. Roman type indicates consecutive passages. Italic type signifies that the passages occur in a different order in the Gospel represented by that column.
The Gospel According to MATTHEW
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 |
THE FIRST GOSPEL resists neat genre classification. One might think that the work’s title names the genre as “Gospel,” but the titles (superscriptions) of such works were not original. More over, when titles were first inserted into these ancient manuscripts for the purposes of identification (second century CE), they did not contain the words “The Gospel,” only “According to X.” Furthermore, the term “Gospel” referring to a literary genre appears nowhere in the NT or in surviving Greek and Roman literature. It seems to have appeared as a description of writings in the late second century, perhaps derived from Mark 1.1 (“The beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ…”), which probably does not refer to the book but to the “good news” (the etymological sense of the Greek word for “gospel”) that it contains.
In short, no genre called “Gospel” seems to have existed, but there were types of ancient literature with generic similarities to the Gospel. The most closely related type is the ancient Hellenistic “biography” (Greek bios, “life”). This genre praises a hero believed to have had divine and human origins who exercised special gifts such as teaching, recruiting followers, and miracle-working and who sometimes died an unusual death.
Most scholars maintain that the Gospel According to Mark was written first and that the author of Matthew transformed the Markan version of the bios further by heightening Israelite (“Jewish”) features such as poetic parallelism; scribal argument; an emphasis on the law, religious practice, and piety; symbolic numbers; scriptural quotation and fulfillment; genealogy; baptism as a rite of entry; a special meal related to Passover; communal discipline; and prayer. In this transformation, Jesus became the authoritative interpreter of Moses, but also the promised messianic king of Israel. In the story he transferred his authority to a prominent disciple, Peter, and then appeared after his death, promising his followers that he would continue to be present with them until the end of the age. These special features of this genre transformation had a profound impact on the developing institutional church. Thus, it is not surprising that the Gospel According to Matthew was placed first in collections of the four Gospels and then in the NT itself.
Authorship and Date
EARLY CHURCH WRITERS CLAIMED that the author of this Gospel, Matthew the tax collector, a disciple of Jesus (10.3; 9.9), collected Jesus’ sayings in the Hebrew dialect for others to translate (Papias, early second century), or wrote the Gospel in the 50s or early 60s (Irenaeus, late second century), or wrote it in Judea in the decades following Jesus’ death (Jerome, fifth century).
Various considerations cast serious doubt on those ancient views. First, the Gospel of Matthew contains, but is not itself, a collection of sayings. Second, a Hebrew version of this Gospel exists, but it is medieval, and scholars argue that the Gospel was originally written in Greek; thus it is not a translation. Third, the author of Matthew was almost certainly aware of the destruction of Jerusalem and the temple in 70 CE (see 21.41; 22.7; 24.15–16). Fourth, Jesus’ main opponents in the story are the Pharisees, whose authority developed predominantly in the late first century. Fifth, according to widely held scholarly opinion (the “Two-Source Theory”), the major sources for the author were the Greek Gospel of Mark (late 60s or early 70s) and a sayings source in Greek that has been lost (designated “Q,” probably composed pre-70) along with some special traditions (“M,” also pre-70). These factors suggest a date after 70, probably between 80 and 90; composition by Jesus’ Galilean tax-collecting disciple at mid-century is therefore extremely unlikely. More certain is the probability that it was written by a multilingual man, probably an Israelite, with a rather sophisticated command of Israelite traditions and scribal argumentation (see 13.52) in the late first century.
The Gospel’s place of origin is debated. Suggestions include Alexandria in Egypt, Caesarea on the eastern Mediterranean coast, Galilee, southern Syria, and some town east of the Jordan River (19.1; 4.15), but the most common theory places its composition in Antioch of Syria. One good reason is that it was a Hellenistic city with a large Israelite population, which fits the Gospel; a more specific reason is that it was quoted by Bishop Ignatius of Antioch within a generation of its composition (ca. 110).
Since anonymous works in antiquity were often attributed to prominent persons, a plausible conclusion is that an unknown Greek-speaking Israelite male, probably a scribe, composed this Gospel about 80–90 CE. Its place of composition was perhaps Antioch, Syria.
Circumstances of Writing
THE GOSPEL OF MATTHEW was written by a subject of the Roman Empire, which can be described as a hierarchically ordered, commercialized, advanced agrarian (peasant) society with no middle class. A few powerful men and their families ruled; they were supported by bureaucrats, slaves, official priests, and a sophisticated military establishment. Those at the bottom of the socioeconomic pyramid were local business-people, artisans, and—the vast majority—peasant farmers and fishermen. There were also a few “expendables,” e.g., bandits, beggars, and prostitutes. With few exceptions, women always ranked below men, and children below both. This structure was typical not only of Roman Italy but also of the Roman provinces. Not surprisingly, these social strata appear throughout the Gospel: provincial governors, centurions, “client” kings, priests, local aristocrats, peasant farmers, artisans, fishermen, lepers, bandits, and beggars. Jesus is portrayed as an advocate of the lower strata and thus in tension with the ruling aristocracy subject to Rome. Despite several important stories about women (9.18–26; 15.21–28; 26.6–13; 27.55–56, 61; 28.1–10), the Gospel was written by a man for men (see, e.g., 5.27–32; 18.15; 23.8).
Political resistance to Rome in the Gospel is not overt, but nonetheless suggestively implied: Jesus descends from King David through a long line of kings (1.6b–12) and is the promised Messiah; his name recalls Joshua, “the Savior” (1.21); his birth is marked by a heavenly star (2.2); he is a threat to Rome’s official ruling Herodian kings (ch. 2); his message is about the kingdom of heaven (4.17), which is in contrast to the “kingdom” of Rome; his predecessor, the prophet John the Baptizer, is executed by Rome’s appointed representative, Herod Antipas, trarch of Galilee (14.1–12); he opposes the Jerusalem temple’s priestly hierarchy, who must collaborate with Rome; he is condemned by a vacillating Roman governor, Pilate (27.2–26); and, most important, his execution is by crucifixion (27.32–56), a Roman penalty mainly for political rebels. In short, though the Matthean plot is not overtly political, economic and political issues of the larger Roman Empire are not far under the surface and should not be ignored in considering the circumstances of the Gospel’s composition.
Other circumstances are more specifically religious. This Gospel expands on the Pharisees as Jesus’ major Galilean opponents (9.11, 34; 12.2; 27.62); accuses them of being “hypocrites”(ch. 23); emphasizes a “righteousness” that exceeds theirs (5.17–20); and speaks of “their scribes” (7.29) and “their synagogues” (4.23; 9.35). These attacks suggest that the author represented a group of mainly Israelite messianic believers who were no longer aligned with post-70, Phari see-led Israelites (see 21.28–23.39). At the same time, there is evidence that the Matthean group
was disrupted internally. The narrative mentions a mixed body of good and bad (13.24–30, 47–50; 22.1–14); there are “false prophets,” and Christ-believers who want freedom from Torah obedience altogether (7.15–23); and there are some who threaten the faith of others (18.6–7, 10–14). The disciples themselves are characterized by “little faith” (6.30; 8.26; 14.31; 16.8), although they evince understanding (13.51). In this connection, only in this Gospel among the four is the word “church” (Greek ekklesia) used, first in relation to the transferal of authority to Peter (16.17–19) and later in relation to the assembled group’s power to ban errant members (18.17). The Sadducees, who were mainly priests, become the major opponents in Jerusalem, along with the Romans.
Structure and Composition
THE GOSPEL ACCORDING TO MATTHEW generally follows the largely geographical outline of Mark from Galilee to Jerusalem, but adds the birth stories at the beginning (chs. 1–2) and the resurrection appearance and final commissioning scene at the end (28.9–20) as well as material from other sources, especially in chs. 5–11. The narrative is marked by temporal statements in 4.17 and 16.21 (“From that time Jesus began…”), but its most striking structural feature is the sequence of five major discourses (5.1–7.27; 10.5–42; 13.1–52; 18.1–35; 24.3–25.46), each concluded by a similar formula, “When Jesus had finished saying these things…” (7.28; 11.1; 13.53; 19.1; 26.1). These discourses may be intended to recall the five books of the Torah, attributed to Moses, since the author seems to have viewed Jesus as a new, more authoritative Moses offering a new Torah that fulfills, yet supersedes, the old (see 2.13–18; 13.52). The Gospel also contains fourteen special “formula quotations” showing that events fulfill the holy scriptures construed as prophecy (see note on 1.22–23).
This Gospel contains subtle anti-Romanism, opposition to a religious establishment, a sharp anti-Pharisaism, moral stringency, and apocalyptic severity. Yet it has a marvelous vision of Jesus as the Moses-like teacher; the compassionate, healing Messiah/Son of David; the royal Son of God; and the apocalyptic Son of Man. It also claims that he is the fulfillment of the Torah and the prophets (5.17–20) and one who calls his followers to spread the good news of the kingdom of heaven to the whole world (28.16–20). [DENNIS C. DULING]
MATTHEW 1
The Genealogy of Jesus the Messiah
1An account of the genealogya of Jesus the Messiah,b the son of David, the son of Abraham.
2Abraham was the father of Isaac, and Isaac the father of Jacob, and Jacob the father of Judah and his brothers, 3and Judah the father of Perez and Zerah by Tamar, and Perez the father of Hezron, and Hezron the father of Aram, 4and Aram the father of Aminadab, and Aminadab the father of Nahshon, and Nahshon the father of Salmon, 5and Salmon the father of Boaz by Rahab, and Boaz the father of Obed by Ruth, and Obed the father of Jesse, 6and Jesse the father of King David.
And David was the father of Solomon by the wife of Uriah, 7and Solomon the father of Rehoboam, and Rehoboam the father of Abijah, and Abijah the father of Asaph,c 8and Asaphd the father of Jehoshaphat, and Jehoshaphat the father of Joram, and Joram the father of Uzziah, 9and Uzziah the father of Jotham, and Jotham the father of Ahaz, and Ahaz the father of Hezekiah, 10and Hezekiah the father of Manasseh, and Manasseh the father of Amos,e and Amosf the father of Josiah, 11and Josiah the father of Jechoniah and his brothers, at the time of the deportation to Babylon.
12And after the deportation to Babylon: Jechoniah was the father of Salathiel, and Salathiel the father of Zerubbabel, 13and Zerubbabel the father of Abiud, and Abiud the father of Eliakim, and Eliakim the father of Azor, 14and Azor the father of Zadok, and Zadok the father of Achim, and Achim the father of Eliud, 15and Eliud the father of Eleazar, and Eleazar the father of Matthan, and Matthan the father of Jacob, 16and Jacob the father of Joseph the husband of Mary, of whom Jesus was born, who is called the Messiah.g
17So all the generations from Abraham to David are fourteen generations; and from David to the deportation to Babylon, fourteen generations; and from the deportation to Babylon to the Messiah,h fourteen generations.
The Birth of Jesus the Messiah
18Now the birth of Jesus the Messiahi took place in this way. When his mother Mary had been engaged to Joseph, but before they lived together, she was found to be with child from the Holy Spirit. 19Her husband Joseph, being a righteous man and unwilling to expose her to public disgrace, planned to dismiss her quietly. 20But just when he had resolved to do this, an angel of the Lord appeared to him in a dream and said, “Joseph, son of David, do not be afraid to take Mary as your wife, for the child conceived in her is from the Holy Spirit. 21She will bear a son, and you are to name him Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins.” 22All this took place to fulfill what had been spoken by the Lord through the prophet:
23“Look, the virgin shall conceive and bear a son,
and they shall name him Emmanuel,”
which means, “God is with us.” 24When Joseph awoke from sleep, he did as the angel of the Lord commanded him; he took her as his wife, 25but had no marital relations with her until she had borne a son;j and he named him Jesus.
next chapter
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a Or birth
b Or Jesus Christ
c Other ancient authorities read Asa
d Other ancient authorities read Asa
e Other ancient authorities read Amon
f Other ancient authorities read Amon
g Or the Christ
h Or the Christ
i Or Jesus Christ
j Other ancient authorities read her firstborn son
1.1–2.23 The author presents Jesus’ twofold “origin” (Greek genesis). First, he is human, having the legitimate prerequisites to be Israel’s Messiah, with hints of his role as a new, but superior, Moses. Second, he is divine, born from a virgin by the Spirit of God.
1.1–17 Cf. Lk 3.23–38. Jesus’ genealogical descent from patriarchs, kings, and four women who have unusual sexual histories but are part of God’s plan.
1.1 Genealogy, lit. “origin” (Greek genesis, see text note a; translated birth in v. 18; cf. Gen 5.1). In this mainly linear genealogy the author emphasizes King David (first!) and the patriarch Abraham. Jesus. See note on 1.21. Messiah, lit. “Anointed [One].” In Israel, kings and priests were anointed with oils (see, e.g., 26.6–13; Lev 21.10–12; 1 Sam 10.1; 16.1–13; Ps 18.50; Lk 7.36–50). Son of, i.e., descended from (see, however, note on 9.27). David, Israel’s greatest king (1 Sam 16.1–1 Kings 2.12). Abraham, ancestral patriarch of the Israelites, but also “ancestor of a multitude of nations (peoples, Gentiles)”(Gen 17.4–5, but see notes on 3.9;25.32); see 10.5–6; 15.24; 28.19; see also Gal 3–4; Rom 4.
1.2–6a The first of three divisions of the genealogy (with vv. 6b–11, 12–16); see v. 17; see also 1 Chr 2.1–15; Ruth 4.18–22. Four women (vv. 3, 5, 6) in a male line of descent is extraordinary; three (and perhaps the fourth, Bathsheba) are certainly Gentiles; three and perhaps the fourth (Ruth) had improper sexual relations but were later admired in Israelite legend and considered important for God’s plan. Their inclusion may answer opponents’ accusations about Mary’s unusual pregnancy or foreshadow the disciples’ commission to “all nations,” including Gentiles (28.19). For interest in the number three, see the triadic arrangements of 5.21–48; 6.1–18; 6.19–24, and the explicit references to three in 12.40; 13.33; 15.32; 17.4; 26.34, 61; 27.40.
1.3 Tamar, a Canaanite who played the prostitute with her father-in-law, Judah (Gen 38; see 1 Chr 2.4); Philo of Alexandria attributed “virginal” beauty to her (On Mating with the Preliminary Studies 124).
1.5 Rahab, a Canaanite prostitute who helped Joshua’s spies to escape (Josh 2.1–21; 6.22–25) and who was remembered for her faith (Heb 11.31) and hospitality (Jas 2.25); nowhere else is she mentioned as Boaz’s mother or David’s ancestor. Ruth, a sexually aggressive widow from Moab; see Ruth 2–4.
1.6a Jesse. See Isa 11.1, 10. In relation to Jesus, see Rom 15.12; Rev 5.5;22
.16.
1.6b–11 The second division (see v. 17) traces Jesus’ genealogy through the Davidic kings (1–2 Kings).
1.6b Wife of Uriah, the very beautiful Bathsheba, with whom David committed adultery; perhaps she was a Hittite, like Uriah (but her name is Hebrew; see 2 Sam 11–12, esp. 12.9; 1 Kings 15.5).
1.11 Deportation to Babylon, i.e., the Babylonian exile (597–539 BCE).
1.12–16a The third division contains mostly unknown names.
1.12 Zerubbabel. See Ezra 3.2, 8; Neh 12.1; Hag 1–2; cf. 1 Chr 3.17–19.
1.16 Joseph the husband of Mary, not “Joseph the father of Jesus,” as expected from the linear genealogical pattern; there are alternatives in the ancient manuscripts; see note on 1.18–25.
1.17 The primary function of linear genealogies is to ascribe honor to a person by tracing ancestry to heroic ancestors; in oral cultures, mnemonic devices and telescoping genealogical units (omitting names) are common. Fourteen, the numerical value of David’s name in Hebrew (d = 4 [twice]; v or w = 6), may be mnemonic; it symbolizes David, whose royal line is the second of three generations of fourteen. The three divisions of unequal length (about 750, 400, and 600 years each) involve telescoping; four kings and a queen are omitted in the second.
1.18–25 Cf. Lk 1.26–38. Jesus’ second, or divine, origin, which also interprets v. 16.
1.18 Birth. See note on 1.1. Engaged. Marriage was not based on romantic love, but on a contract between families in which family status and economics played a role (e.g., dowry; bride-price). Marriageable age for girls was normally puberty, at which time the girl was contracted to her future husband (v. 19; see Deut 20.7). Before they lived together, the betrothal period. To be with child before marriage dishonored the families, especially the males, and was grounds for Joseph’s dismissing her (see v. 19; ancient law even permitted her execution by stoning; cf. Deut 22.13–21). The Holy Spirit, creative divine agency (see v. 20; 3.16; 22.43; 28.19; Lk 1.35).
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