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a Gk it
b Other ancient authorities read Clauda
c Gk helps
d Other ancient authorities read seventy-six; others, about seventy-six
e Gk place of two seas
27.1–44 Paul’s long-anticipated journey to Rome (see 19.21; 23.11) contains elements familiar from Greco-Roman literature: travel accounts, storms, shipwrecks, and the resulting preoccupation with safety.
27.1 The use of first-person plural narration (we) resumes and continues through 28.16; see note on 16.10. Augustan Cohort, named after the emperor Augustus, who died in 14 CE.
27.2 Adramyttium, a port on the northwest coast of Asia Minor, in the region of Mysia. Aristarchus. See note on 19.29.
27.3 Sidon, a Phoenician city north of Caesarea.
27.4 Sailing to the north and east of the island of Cyprus afforded protection from westerly winds.
27.5 The route moves west along the southern districts (Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia) of Asia Minor.
27.6 Ship, probably a grain ship (see v. 38); Rome imported much grain from Egypt.
27.7 Cnidus, a small island off the southwest coast of Asia Minor. Salmone, a cape at the northeastern extreme of Crete.
27.8 Fair Havens and Lasea are on the southern coast of Crete. After this point the ship would be in open waters without the protection of the island.
27.9 The Fast, the Day of Atonement, the tenth of Tishri (September/October). Voyages after mid-September were considered unwise because of the increased danger of bad weather.
27.10 It seems improbable that a prisoner would have been included in such deliberations. Together with the difficulties with the winds already noted in vv. 4–8, Paul’s advice serves as a prophetic warning.
27.16 Cauda, south of Crete to the west of Fair Havens. The ship’s boat, i.e., the lifeboat.
27.17 It is not clear what undergirding entailed. The Syrtis, two dangerous bays between Cyrene and Carthage on the northern coast of Africa.
27.20 With neither sun nor stars, the ship had no navigational guides. No small tempest. See note on 12.18–19.
27.21–26 Paul’s brief speech recalls his earlier warning (v. 10) and interprets the ship’s eventual safety as part of God’s plan for Paul’s mission (19.21; 23.11).
27.21 Without food refers to seasickness or fasting, as food was available (vv. 33–38).
27.23 The God…I worship identifies God for Paul’s gentile fellow passengers.
27.24 You must stand before the emperor. See 9.15; 19.21; 23.11. Although Luke does not narrate Paul’s trial before Caesar (see note on 28.30–31), he must have known that it occurred.
27.27 The sea of Adria, i.e., the Adriatic Sea.
27.33 Take some food. See note on 27.21.
27.34 See 1 Sam 14.45; 1 Kings 1.52; Lk 21.18.
27.35–36 There may be echoes of the Eucharist here (see Lk 22.19), although the separate meals of those present make any intentional reference unlikely.
27.39–44 Paul’s earlier predictions are realized (see vv. 22, 24, 26, 34).
Acts 28
Paul on the Island of Malta
1After we had reached safety, we then learned that the island was called Malta. 2The natives showed us unusual kindness. Since it had begun to rain and was cold, they kindled a fire and welcomed all of us around it. 3Paul had gathered a bundle of brushwood and was putting it on the fire, when a viper, driven out by the heat, fastened itself on his hand. 4When the natives saw the creature hanging from his hand, they said to one another, “This man must be a murderer; though he has escaped from the sea, justice has not allowed him to live.” 5He, however, shook off the creature into the fire and suffered no harm. 6They were expecting him to swell up or drop dead, but after they had waited a long time and saw that nothing unusual had happened to him, they changed their minds and began to say that he was a god.
7Now in the neighborhood of that place were lands belonging to the leading man of the island, named Publius, who received us and entertained us hospitably for three days. 8It so happened that the father of Publius lay sick in bed with fever and dysentery. Paul visited him and cured him by praying and putting his hands on him. 9After this happened, the rest of the people on the island who had diseases also came and were cured. 10They bestowed many honors on us, and when we were about to sail, they put on board all the provisions we needed.
Paul Arrives at Rome
11Three months later we set sail on a ship that had wintered at the island, an Alexandrian ship with the Twin Brothers as its figurehead. 12We put in at Syracuse and stayed there for three days; 13then we weighed anchor and came to Rhegium. After one day there a south wind sprang up, and on the second day we came to Puteoli. 14There we found believersa and were invited to stay with them for seven days. And so we came to Rome. 15The believersb from there, when they heard of us, came as far as the Forum of Appius and Three Taverns to meet us. On seeing them, Paul thanked God and took courage.
16When we came into Rome, Paul was allowed to live by himself, with the soldier who was guarding him.
Paul and Jewish Leaders in Rome
17Three days later he called together the local leaders of the Jews. When they had assembled, he said to them, “Brothers, though I had done nothing against our people or the customs of our ancestors, yet I was arrested in Jerusalem and handed over to the Romans. 18When they had examined me, the Romansc wanted to release me, because there was no reason for the death penalty in my case. 19But when the Jews objected, I was compelled to appeal to the emperor—even though I had no charge to bring against my nation. 20For this reason therefore I have asked to see you and speak with you,d since it is for the sake of the hope of Israel that I am bound with this chain.” 21They replied, “We have received no letters from Judea about you, and none of the brothers coming here has reported or spoken anything evil about you. 22But we would like to hear from you what you think, for with regard to this sect we know that everywhere it is spoken against.”
Paul Preaches in Rome
23After they had set a day to meet with him, they came to him at his lodgings in great numbers. From morning until evening he explained the matter to them, testifying to the kingdom of God and trying to convince them about Jesus both from the law of Moses and from the prophets. 24Some were convinced by what he had said, while others refused to believe. 25So they disagreed with each other; and as they were leaving, Paul made one further statement: “The Holy Spirit was right in saying to your ancestors through the prophet Isaiah,
26‘Go to this people and say,
You will indeed listen, but never understand,
and you will indeed look, but never perceive.
27For this people’s heart has grown dull,
and their ears are hard of hearing,
and they have shut their eyes;
so that they might not look with their eyes,
and listen with their ears,
and understand with their heart and turn—
and I would heal them.’
28Let it be known to you then that this salvation of God has been sent to the Gentiles; they will listen.”e
30He lived there two whole years at his own expensef and welcomed all who came to him, 31proclaiming the kingdom of God and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ with all boldness and without hindrance.
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a Gk brothers
b Gk brothers
c Gk they
d Or I have asked you to see me and speak with me
e Other ancient authorities add verse 29, And when he had said these words, the Jews departed, arguing vigorously among themselves
f Or in his own hired dwelling
28.1–10 On Malta, Paul and his companions find exemplary hospitality and return it by healing the sick.
28.1 Malta, an island south of Sicily.
28.4 Justice, probably the Greek goddess, Dike, who personifies justice.
28.11–16 The final part
of Paul’s journey to Rome recalls the much longer journey to Jerusalem in 20.1–21.17, with its travelogue and visits with believers.
28.11 Three months later. Sailing resumed in February or March (see note on 27.9). An Alexandrian ship. See note on 27.6. Twin Brothers, i.e., Castor and Pollux, sons of Zeus who are associated with safety on the seas.
28.12–13 The route (Syracuse to Rhegium to Puteoli) is along the eastern coast of Sicily and then along the western coast of Italy to the port of Puteoli, west of Naples.
28.14–15 The presence of believers in Puteoli and Rome indicates that Paul was not the first to preach the gospel there (see Rom 1.13).
28.15 The Forum of Appius, a market town forty-three miles outside Rome. Three Taverns, a way station thirty-three miles from Rome along the Appian Way.
28.17–28 The final scene in Acts depicts Paul first defending himself before Roman Jews and then proclaiming to them the gospel.
28.17–20 Paul’s speech recapitulates his earlier defense in Jerusalem: he had not violated the Jewish people or their customs (22.3–21; 24.11–13); he was charged with no capital crime (25.8, 11); he was compelled to appeal to the emperor (25.10–12); he acts only for the sake of Israel’s hope (23.6; 24.14–15, 21; 26.6–8, 23).
28.23 Kingdom of God. See note on 1.3. From the law of Moses and from the prophets recalls Lk 24.27; see also Lk 24.44; Acts 3.18; 24.14; 26.22.
28.24 As elsewhere, Christian proclamation receives a mixed reaction; see, e.g., 13.43–45; 17.4–5.
28.26–27 See Isa 6.9–10 (Septuagint).
28.28 The announcement of God’s salvation recalls the opening of Luke-Acts (Lk 2.30–32; 3.6). This is the third time Paul has announced that the gospel is for the Gentiles (see 13.46–48; 18.5–6). Since this final statement comes in the concluding lines of Acts, it may indeed refer to the close of the Jewish mission; on the other hand, the two earlier pronouncements are followed by further preaching among Jews, and v. 30 indicates Paul welcomed all who came to him, leaving open the possibility of further conversation.
28.30–31 Although Luke does not narrate Paul’s trial or death, he has provided ample indication that they lie ahead (see, e.g., 19.21; 20.22–25; 23.11; 26.32; 27.24). He concludes with a brief note about Paul’s continued imprisonment, in which the gospel is nevertheless openly proclaimed.
28.31 Kingdom of God. See note on 1.3. On boldness as a characteristic of Christian witness, see note on 4.13.
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Possible Chronology of the Pauline Letters
1 Thessalonians
50–51 CE
[2 Thessalonians]
[50–51, if authentic]
If pseudonymous, in the last decades of the first century.
Philippians
54–55
This dating assumes that the Letter was sent from Ephesus. If from Caesarea, three to four years later, and if from Rome, six to seven years later.
Philemon
54–55
This Letter seems to have been written under the same circumstances as Philippians, and the same uncertainties apply.
Galatians
50–56
Any closer dating depends in part on resolving the question of the location of the addressees.
1Corinthians
54
2Corinthians
55–56
It is likely that different portions of the Letter were written and sent at different times within this period.
Romans
56–57
[Colossians]
[57–61, if authentic]
Earlier in this period if from Caesarea, later if from Rome. If pseudonymous, sometime between 70 and 90.
[Ephesians]
[80–95]
Assuming pseudonymity.
[1–2 Timothy, Titus]
[90–110]
Assuming pseudonymity.
Brackets indicate that authorship by Paul is in question.
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The Letter of Paul to the ROMANS
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 11 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 15 | 16 |
BY 58 CE PAUL THOUGHT that his mission in the Aegean region was completed (15.23). Now only one thing remained: going to Jerusalem to deliver funds collected from his churches, as agreed at the Jerusalem council a decade before (Gal 2.1–10). Before leaving Greece he dictated this Letter to Tertius (16.22) and probably asked Phoebe, who was about to leave for Rome (16.1–2), to deliver it. He informed the readers that after going to Jerusalem he would stop in Rome on his way to Spain, where he would begin a new mission. Because of his fore boding about his reception in Jerusalem, he asked the recipients to support him with prayer; he also hinted that he would welcome their financial support for his work in Spain (1.8–15; 15.22–33).
The Roman Church
THE ORIGINS OF CHRISTIANITY in Rome are obscure, though some evidence suggests that it had arrived there by 50 CE. The historian Suetonius reports that in 49 the emperor Claudius expelled Jews from Rome because of disturbances over “Chrestus” (probably a mistake for “Christus,” or Christ; Life of Claudius 25.3). According to Acts 18.1–3, in Corinth Paul met a Jewish Christian couple, Aquila and Priscilla, who were among those expelled. After the murder of Claudius in 54 CE, presumably the Jews returned, among them Aquila and Prisca (as Paul calls her; see Rom 16.3–4). Acts tells us nothing more about Roman Christianity, except that Christians from Rome met Paul as he neared that city as a prisoner (28.15–16)—the unforeseen result of going to Jerusalem (Acts 21.17–25.12).
Purposes
ALTHOUGH THE LETTER WAS SENT to people mostly still unknown to Paul, it provides clues about Christians in Rome that may indicate something about his purposes in writing. Apparently there were tensions between the Christian Gentiles and the returned Christian Jews—tensions that would inhibit the desired support for the new mission in Spain. In chs. 14–15 he addresses the “weak in faith” (the scrupulous in observing special days and diets) and “the strong” (the lax in such matters), but he does not say that the former are Jews and the latter Gentiles. So the extent to which Paul’s counsels have in view the specific situation in Rome is not clear. More serious theologically was the danger that Paul’s whole mission was being misinterpreted, on the one hand by Christian Jews who may have inferred that in going to Gentiles he was turning his back on his own people (see 10.1), and on the other by Christian Gentiles who apparently inferred that, because most Jews were rejecting the gospel, God had rejected the Jews (see 11.1–6). Thus when Paul sent this Letter, he faced opposite misunderstandings of the gospel: in Jerusalem he needed to defend the validity of his predominantly gentile churches, whose money he was bringing and who did not observe the Jewish law; in Rome he needed to defend the continuing validity of Israel in God’s purpose (the current Jewish rejection of the gospel did not imply that Israel’s election was now annulled, 11.13–24). His Letter, therefore, insists that there is one gospel for all humanity, albeit “to the Jew first” (1.16).
Character of the Letter
ROMANS—PAUL’S MOST SUSTAINED THEOLOGICAL ARGUMENT—is the work of a mature mind. Indeed, it might be the last Letter we have from Paul (assuming Philippians was written earlier and the Pastorals are pseudonymous). Behind it lie over two decades of teaching, preaching, and writing letters to deal with problems that had arisen in the churches he had founded. The Letter to the Galatians is closest to Romans, for it also emphasizes justification by faith, appeals to Abraham, and relies heavily on scripture. But the two Letters treat these topics somewhat differently; in Galatians Paul contends with rival interpretations of the gospel, whereas in Romans he presents the larger rationale of his gospel. Romans is not, however, a summary of Paul’s thought. Important themes are either absent (e.g., the Lord’s Supper) or mentioned only in passing (e.g., “church” appears only in ch. 16).
The Letter’s opening (1.1–7) is followed by the customary paragraph of thanksgiving (1.8–15), which leads into a statement commonly see
n as the theological theme (1.16–17). The theological argument (1.18–11.36) has two parts: 1.18–8.39 develops the meaning of God’s righteousness, and chs. 9–11 focus on the meaning of Israel. Although chs. 9–11 are a discrete unit, they are neither an excursus nor an appendage, but an integral part of the argument in which Paul’s view of God’s righteousness is applied to the election of Israel. The admonitions (12.1–15.13) also have two parts. The first (chs. 12–13) discusses various matters; the second (14.1–15.13) addresses the “weak” and the “strong.” The rest of ch. 15 reflects on Paul’s work and travel plans. Thus the personal matters discussed in 1.1–15 and in 15.14–33 are a frame around the theological and ethical core (1.16–15.13). Ch. 16 consists mostly of greetings and the concluding doxology. Some have argued that the final chapter was a letter originally sent to Ephesus but later attached to Romans. Indeed, shorter editions of Romans did once exist. Rom 15.33 resembles a conclusion, and one manuscript actually has 16.25–27 at this point, while a number of others have it at the end of ch. 14. Rather than being a later addition, however, ch. 16 is more likely an original part of Romans that was omitted when a few manuscripts abbreviated the Letter for general church use (and omitted the reference to Rome in 1.7).
The study of Romans has concentrated on Paul’s ideas (e.g., justification, grace, law), but recent work has turned also to his use of ancient rhetoric and to the ways in which the OT functions in his argument. Just as he uses conventions of ancient letter writing, so he uses Greco-Roman rhetorical techniques and Jewish exegetical methods to develop his argument, which is in effect a discourse intended to be read aloud. What gives Romans its depth and power, however, is the rigor of Paul’s own thought, which these conventions help him to express effectively. [LEANDER E. KECK]
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