2.1–10 Various groups in the church are exhorted to conduct that reflects contemporary virtues and the specific concerns of these Letters; see also 1 Tim 5.1–6.2.
2.1 Sound doctrine. See note on 1 Tim 1.10.
2.2 The virtues of the older men resemble those of bishops and deacons; see 1 Tim 3.2, 8.
2.3 The instructions about older women resemble those concerning deacons’ wives (or women deacons); see 1 Tim 3.11.
2.4 On the behavior of young women, see 1 Tim 2.11–15; 5.14. The behavior cultivated is that of the ideal Roman wife.
2.5 Discredited, i.e., by outsiders offended by their behavior. See vv. 8, 10; 1 Tim 3.7.
2.9 Slaves are also exhorted in 1 Tim 6.1–2. There are no instructions to masters in either passage (cf. Eph 6.5–9; Col 3.22–4.1).
2.11–15 This passage, which may contain a liturgical fragment (vv. 11–14), provides a theological basis for the Letter’s exhortations (see also 3.4–7).
2.11–13 Two appearances or manifestations of Jesus mark God’s plan of salvation: the incarnation is a manifestation of God’s grace (see also 3.4; 1 Tim 3.16; 2 Tim 1.10) and the parousia, or Second Coming, is a manifestation of God’s glory (see also 1 Tim 6.14). Salvation to all. See note on 1 Tim 2.1–7.
2.12 The Christian life is described in the language of Hellenistic moral philosophy. Impiety is the mark of the false teachers; see 2 Tim 2.16. Worldly passions are described in 3.3. Self-controlled, upright, and godly lives embody essential virtues of Hellenistic moral philosophy.
2.13 Where Paul speaks of Christ’s “coming” (Greek parousia; see 1 Cor 15.23; 1 Thess 4.15), these Letters borrow the terminology of the imperial cult and speak of his manifestation (Greek epiphaneia). NT writers rarely speak of Christ as God (but see Jn 20.28; Heb 1.8). This text may do so, but the translation given in textual note b, which does not refer to Christ as God, is equally possible. Elsewhere in these Letters Jesus’ humanity is stressed (see 1 Tim 2.5).
Titus 3
Maintain Good Deeds
1Remind them to be subject to rulers and authorities, to be obedient, to be ready for every good work, 2to speak evil of no one, to avoid quarreling, to be gentle, and to show every courtesy to everyone. 3For we ourselves were once foolish, disobedient, led astray, slaves to various passions and pleasures, passing our days in malice and envy, despicable, hating one another. 4But when the goodness and loving kindness of God our Savior appeared, 5he saved us, not because of any works of righteousness that we had done, but according to his mercy, through the watera of rebirth and renewal by the Holy Spirit. 6This Spirit he poured out on us richly through Jesus Christ our Savior, 7so that, having been justified by his grace, we might become heirs according to the hope of eternal life. 8The saying is sure.
I desire that you insist on these things, so that those who have come to believe in God may be careful to devote themselves to good works; these things are excellent and profitable to everyone. 9But avoid stupid controversies, genealogies, dissensions, and quarrels about the law, for they are unprofitable and worthless. 10After a first and second admonition, have nothing more to do with anyone who causes divisions, 11since you know that such a person is perverted and sinful, being self-condemned.
Final Messages and Benediction
12When I send Artemas to you, or Tychicus, do your best to come to me at Nicopolis, for I have decided to spend the winter there. 13Make every effort to send Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way, and see that they lack nothing. 14And let people learn to devote themselves to good works in order to meet urgent needs, so that they may not be unproductive.
15All who are with me send greetings to you. Greet those who love us in the faith.
Grace be with all of you.b
* * *
a Gk washing
b Other ancient authorities add Amen
3.1–8a Brief instructions are buttressed with a lengthy description of God’s mercy.
3.1 Be subject, rendered be submissive in 2.5, 9; see also 1 Tim 2.11; 3.4. On submission to rulers, see Rom 13.1–7; 1 Pet 2.13–17; see also 1 Tim 2.1–2. Good work. See 2.7; 3.8; 1 Tim 2.10.
3.3–7 The contrast between life prior to grace and life transformed by it is typical of Christian exhortation (see Rom 6.17–19; 1 Cor 6.9–11; Eph 2.1–10). The dense theological content of these verses suggests a liturgical or creedal origin (see also 2.11–14).
3.4 Goodness and loving kindness. God is described with the humanitarian attributes of an ideal ruler. These attributes appeared at the incarnation.
3.5 The rejection of the attaining of righteousness by works is very Pauline, though Paul specifies works of the law; see Rom 3.28; Gal 2.16; see also 2 Tim 1.9. Water (lit. washing; see text note d) of rebirth, i.e., baptism. See Eph 5.26. The language of rebirth is not found in Paul’s Letters, but see Jn 3.3, 5; 1 Pet 1.3.
3.6 The Spirit was poured out at Pentecost; see Acts 2.14–18.
3.7 Justified by his grace, a very Pauline statement (see Rom 3.24). On the hope of eternal life, see Rom 5.2–5; see also Titus 1.2.
3.8a The saying is sure refers back to vv. 4–7; see 1 Tim 1.15.
3.8b–11 A final warning about the false teachers emphasizes their divisiveness (cf. vv. 1–2); see also 1.10–16; 1 Tim 1.4–7; 2 Tim 2.16–23.
3.9 On the tactic of avoidance, see 1 Tim 4.7; 2 Tim 2.16, 23; cf. Titus 1.9.
3.12–15 Final instructions and greetings.
3.12 Tychicus. See Acts 20.4; Eph 6.21; Col 4.7–9; 2 Tim 4.12. Nicopolis is on the western coast of Epirus (Greece); no other NT writings mention a visit by Paul to this city. Sea travel was not possible in winter; see 2 Tim 4.21.
3.13 Apollos. See Acts 18.24–28; 1 Cor 3.4–9; 16.12.
3.14 A final exhortation to good works; see 1 Tim 2.10.
The Letter of Paul to PHILEMON
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ALTHOUGH PAUL’S LETTER to Philemon is generally comprehensible, his unusually deferential and indirect language and the very nature of a letter as only one half of a conversation make it difficult for later readers to know its occasion and content as precisely as the first ones did.
Place and Date
PAUL WRITES FROM PRISON (vv. 1, 9, 10, 13, 23) to a Christian living in Colossae in Asia Minor. The Letter does not say where he was imprisoned, though some manuscripts add a postscript saying that Paul wrote it “from Rome,” i.e., during his Roman imprisonment of 60–62 CE (Acts 28.16–31). But Rome is problematic: it involves a long distance for the slave Onesimus to travel to be with Paul; and it causes problems with Pauline chronology, for Paul’s plans after Rome were to travel westward to Spain (Rom 15.22–24) and not eastward to Colossae, as he promises Philemon (v. 22). Other imprisonments—e.g., at Philippi (Acts 16.23–40) or Caesarea (Acts 23.35)—are also problematic, so that it is best to leave open the place of Paul’s imprisonment. Once Rome is ruled out, so is a precise dating, leaving a period from the mid to the late 50s as most likely.
Occasion and Content
THE SLAVE ONESIMUS IS WITH PAUL and during his stay has not only served him but has also been converted by him. In fact, Paul has come to regard him as his child (v. 10) and wants him to continue in his service (v. 13). He has decided, however, to send him back to his master, Philemon (v. 12), so as to obtain Philemon’s approval (v. 14) and possibly Onesimus’s freedom (v. 16). Paul’s problem is that Onesimus, quite possibly a runaway, may have also wronged his master or stolen something from him (v. 18), so that his requests for Onesimus’s continued stay and possible emancipation are directed to a master who was more likely to be angry than amenable. To deflect this anger Paul writes cautiously, speaking deferentially to Philemon and indirectly about Onesimus. The result is a masterpiece of church diplomacy, but equally a Letter that speaks so obliquely of Onesimus’s situation—e.g., his being “separated” from Philemon (v. 15)—that it is far from certain whether Onesimus was a runaway. Likewise, the Letter speaks so disarmingly of Philemon’s responsibility toward Onesimus—e.g., his being
asked to treat him as “more than a slave” (v. 16)—that it is unclear what Paul’s intentions for Philemon really were. [RONALD F. HOCK]
Philemon 1
Salutation
11 Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother,a
To Philemon our dear friend and coworker, 2to Apphia our sister,b to Archippus our fellow soldier, and to the church in your house:
3Grace to you and peace from God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ.
Philemon’s Love and Faith
4When I remember youc in my prayers, I always thank my God 5because I hear of your love for all the saints and your faith toward the Lord Jesus. 6I pray that the sharing of your faith may become effective when you perceive all the good that wed may do for Christ. 7I have indeed received much joy and encouragement from your love, because the hearts of the saints have been refreshed through you, my brother.
Paul’s Plea for Onesimus
8For this reason, though I am bold enough in Christ to command you to do your duty, 9yet I would rather appeal to you on the basis of love—and I, Paul, do this as an old man, and now also as a prisoner of Christ Jesus.e 10I am appealing to you for my child, Onesimus, whose father I have become during my imprisonment. 11Formerly he was useless to you, but now he is indeed usefulf both to you and to me. 12I am sending him, that is, my own heart, back to you. 13I wanted to keep him with me, so that he might be of service to me in your place during my imprisonment for the gospel; 14but I preferred to do nothing without your consent, in order that your good deed might be voluntary and not something forced. 15Perhaps this is the reason he was separated from you for a while, so that you might have him back forever, 16no longer as a slave but more than a slave, a beloved brother—especially to me but how much more to you, both in the flesh and in the Lord.
17So if you consider me your partner, welcome him as you would welcome me. 18If he has wronged you in any way, or owes you anything, charge that to my account. 19I, Paul, am writing this with my own hand: I will repay it. I say nothing about your owing me even your own self. 20Yes, brother, let me have this benefit from you in the Lord! Refresh my heart in Christ. 21Confident of your obedience, I am writing to you, knowing that you will do even more than I say.
22One thing more—prepare a guest room for me, for I am hoping through your prayers to be restored to you.
Final Greetings and Benediction
23Epaphras, my fellow prisoner in Christ Jesus, sends greetings to you,g 24and so do Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke, my fellow workers.
25The grace of the Lord Jesus Christ be with your spirit.h
* * *
a Gk the brother
b Gk the sister
c From verse 4 through verse 21, you is singular
d Other ancient authorities read you (plural)
e Or as an ambassador of Christ Jesus, and now also his prisoner
f The name Onesimus means useful or (compare verse 20) beneficial
g Here you is singular
h Other ancient authorities add Amen
1–3 Identifying the sender(s) and recipient(s) at the beginning of a letter is typical of Paul and of ancient letter writers generally.
1 Timothy, co-sender of the Letter (as also of 2 Corinthians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians), is one of Paul’s closest associates in his missionary work (see 1 Cor 4.17; Phil 2.19–24; 1 Thess 3.1–6).
2 Apphia and Archippus (see also Col 4.17) may be Philemon’s wife and son. The characterization fellow soldier (used also of Epaphroditus in Phil 2.25) is figurative, meaning co-worker. If not family members, they are at least leaders along with Philemon in the church that meets in Philemon’s house. Using domestic structures for church meetings was typical in the NT period (see also Rom 16.5; 1 Cor 16.15, 19; Col 4.15).
4–7 Typical of Paul’s Letters is a statement of gratitude to God for something commendable in the recipients’ conduct. Here Paul’s gratitude is aimed specifically at Philemon (see text note c).
5 Love, faith. For the combination, see 1 Cor 13.13 (with hope); Gal 5.6; 1 Thess 3.6; 1 Tim 1.14; 2 Tim 1.13; 2.22; Titus 2.2.
7 Refreshed through you, vague, though it may refer to some act of hospitality, perhaps toward traveling missionaries (see 3 Jn 5–8). Note Paul’s similar expression in v. 20.
8–22 In the body of the Letter Paul turns to the matter at hand: asking for Onesimus’s continued service and possibly his freedom. In vv. 8–16 Paul delicately prepares Philemon for the requests in vv. 17–22.
8 Bold enough. The Greek term connotes that Paul feels free to exercise frank and direct speech, as would be appropriate among good friends.
9. Love, without the definite article, suggests love in general, but the Greek has the article and thus may refer to Philemon’s specific acts of love (vv. 5, 7).
10 Child and father, metaphors Paul uses elsewhere of his converts and himself (e.g., 1 Cor 4.15; Gal 4.19; 1 Thess 2.11).
11 Useless, a standard term for bad slaves. Useful, which plays on the etymology of the name Onesimus (see text note f), is a term for good slaves and shows how much Onesimus has changed since he left.
12 Heart. The translation captures the flavor of the Greek, although the connotations of the word, which might be rendered “guts,” are more graphic. See also v. 20.
15 Was separated, probably a tactful way of referring to Onesimus’s having run away; the passive form of the verb also makes Onesimus less accountable for his action and may even suggest the working of providence.
16 More than a slave, vague, but may imply release from slavery (see also do even more than I say, v. 21). Paul considers the possibility of liberation from slavery also in 1 Cor 7.20–24. His basic advice to “remain as you were called” suggests that one’s status as a member of the body of Christ is more important than one’s social standing. His advice for those who have the opportunity for freedom is ambiguous. See the note on 1 Cor 7.21.
17 Paul also calls Titus his partner (2 Cor 8.23) but otherwise speaks of whole churches—especially the Philippians—as partners (2 Cor 8.4; Phil 4.15).
19 Paul often writes a portion of his Letters in his own hand (see 1 Cor 16.21; Gal 6.11; see also 2 Thess 3.17). I will repay it. Paul dramatically reemphasizes (see v. 18) his assumption of whatever financial burdens Onesimus may have caused Philemon. Owing me even your own self doubtlessly refers to Paul’s having converted Philemon, perhaps at Ephesus (Acts 19.10).
21 Obedience. Although Paul has not formally commanded anything, he obviously expects his admonitions to be respected.
23–24 An exchange of greetings often closes ancient letters. Epaphras, Mark, Aristarchus, Demas, and Luke are all included in the closing greetings of Colossians (4.10–14). Onesimus is also mentioned in Col 4.9. Mark (Acts 12.12, 25; 13.5) and Luke are the persons later credited with writing Gospels.
The Letter to the HEBREWS
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THE LETTER TO THE HEBREWS forcefully argues that through Christ, faithful Christians have direct access to God. The text urges the faithful, confident of their covenant relationship with God, to follow Christ’s example and live as he did, faithful, hopeful, loving, and patient in the face of persecution.
Author and Date
ALTHOUGH HEBREWS WAS TRADITIONALLY attributed to Paul, even early Christian readers such as Origen (185–254 CE) recognized that its style is quite different from that of Paul’s Letters. Scholars have proposed attributing Hebrews to various early Christian figures such as Barnabas, Apollos, or Priscilla, but solid evidence for such suggestions is lacking. The work thus remains anonymous.
The elaborate reflections on Christ in Hebrews took some decades to develop. Hence the text was probably composed after 60 and before 95 CE, the approximate date of 1 Clement, a letter written from Rome that uses several portions of Hebrews.
Genre and Sources
ALTHOUGH CLASSED WITH THE LETTERS of the New Testament, Hebrews is really an extended sermon or, as
its conclusion labels it, a “word of exhortation” (13.22). Hebrews does, however, end like a letter (13.19–25), and the final paragraphs suggest that the homily was sent to a distant congregation.
The most important source for Hebrews is the OT in its Greek form, the Septuagint, interpreted in light of belief in Jesus. Texts from all portions of Israel’s scriptures come into play: the Pentateuch, Prophets, Psalms, and other Writings. Nonbiblical traditions also play a role. The comparison of Christ and Melchizedek in ch. 7, for example, resembles speculation widespread in first-century Judaism about the shadowy figure of Melchizedek, mentioned only in Gen 14 and Ps 110.
Audience
THE REFERENCE TO “HEBREWS” in the title represents a conjecture about the identity of the audience made by early Christian scribes on the basis of the content of the homily. Yet the audience, though possibly including people of Jewish background, clearly shares with the author a Christian commitment (3.1; 4.14; 10.23).
The location of the audience is not known with certainty. The farewell (13.24) contains greetings from “those from Italy,” suggesting that the author’s companions are saluting friends at home. This fact, plus the early attestation of Hebrews by Clement of Rome, points to a destination in Rome, where Christians continued to speak Greek until well into the second century.
The audience, members of the church’s “second generation” (2.3), had experienced persecution (10.32–34) and had perhaps become disappointed that God’s promised kingdom had not yet come. Some members may even have begun to abandon the community (10.25). The author confronts this situation with a combination of exhortations to be faithful and warnings not to fall away (see, e.g., 6.4–8).
Language and Style
THE GREEK OF HEBREWS is among the most sophisticated in the NT, involving a broad vocabulary knit into complex sentences and balanced, sometimes rhythmic cadences. The author also uses all the devices of contemporary orators to embellish the argument, though many of these effects, such as the repetition of similar sounds, cannot be reproduced in translation. Imagery from various spheres of activity, including education (5.12–14; 12.7–11), agriculture (6.7–8; 12.11), seafaring (6.19), and athletics (5.14; 12.1–3), illustrates the argument. The author delights in teasing out the meaning of individual words (3.1–6; 9.15–17). All of this serves the sermon’s goal of reflection on the One through whom God has definitively spoken (1.1–2). [HAROLD W. ATTRIDGE]
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