19My brothers and sisters,f if anyone among you wanders from the truth and is brought back by another, 20you should know that whoever brings back a sinner from wandering will save the sinner’sg soul from death and will cover a multitude of sins.
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a Or will eat your flesh, since you have stored up fire
b Gk brothers
c Or is at hand
d Gk brothers
e Gk brothers
f Gk My brothers
g Gk his
5.1–6 The attack on the rich now recalls prophetic denunciations like Jer 5.5–6; Mal 3.5.
5.1 See 1.10–11; also the woe to the rich in Lk 6.24.
5.3 For the last days, or “in the last days” see v. 5. James shares the early Christian conviction that the end of the age is very near and will be accompanied by judgment; see v. 8.
5.4 To deprive laborers of their wages is a prime example of oppression in the OT; see, e.g., Lev 19.13; Deut 24.14–15. Lord of hosts, lit. “Lord Sabaoth,” an OT title; see Isa 5.7. Hosts, stars or angels; see 1.17.
5.6 The righteous one, perhaps Jesus, so described in Acts 3.14; 7.52; see also 1 Pet 3.18; 1 Jn 2.1. More probably James echoes the familiar OT theme that God’s righteous ones are the poor and oppressed; see, e.g., Ps 140.12–13; Wis 2.12–20. James of Jerusalem, who became a martyr, was also called “the Just” (i.e., “the Righteous”).
5.7–12 An encouragement to endure in hope of a final reward.
5.7 These rains are characteristic of Palestine and Syria and are sometimes taken as a pointer to the Letter’s place of origin, but they are also known from the OT (see Deut 11.14; Jer 5.24).
5.8 For the coming, or return, of Jesus, see, e.g., Mt 24.3; 1 Cor 15.23; 2 Pet 1.16.
5.10 Prophecy and martyrdom became closely associated in Jewish tradition, though in the OT only two prophets met violent deaths (see 2 Chr 24.20–21; Jer 26.20–23). Jeremiah is, however, an obvious example of a prophet who endured hardship and humiliation; see Jer 20.1–2; 38.6.
5.11 The suffering of Job is the subject of that book, though his endurance of it is hardly an example of patience. Purpose, or “the end,” God’s final restoration of Job.
5.12 A clear echo of the teaching of Jesus, whose prohibition of any oath was highly unusual; see Mt 5.33–37.
5.13–20 James concludes by encouraging practices that foster communal solidarity.
5.13 See Eph 5.19.
5.14 Some leaders of Christian communities are called elders, perhaps following the model of Jewish synagogue organization; see, e.g., Acts 14.23; 20.17; 1 Tim 5.17–19; Titus 1.5. For the gift of healing, see 1 Cor 12.27–30; here it is exercised by the community’s leaders. Oil was a common remedy for pain throughout the ancient world; see Lk 10.34. Christian healing was performed in the name of Jesus; see, e.g., Mk 16.17–18; Acts 3.6.
5.15 It was commonly assumed that sickness was in some measure a punishment for sins, so that healing was both physical and spiritual or moral; see Mk 2.3–12; Jn 5.14; but cf. Jn 9.1–3.
5.17–18 See 1 Kings 17.1; 18.41–45.
5.20 The text simply has a possessive pronoun (see text note b), so it could be read as offering a double blessing, salvation of the soul and forgiveness of sins, to either the converter or the converted.
The First Letter of PETER
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
THE SALUTATION (1.1–2) and final greeting (5.12–14) of 1 Peter give information concerning the Letter’s origin and addressees and provide clues about its author and date. These verses say it was sent by the apostle Peter from Rome to Christians in five areas of Asia Minor whose names approximate those of Roman provinces there. The author calls Rome “Babylon” (5.13), a name frequently used for that city in Jewish and Christian tradition after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. The salutation and 5.9 indicate that Christianity was widespread in Asia Minor when the Letter was written; this was probably the result of Paul’s preaching there in the 60s.
Although the readers are suffering for their faith, there is no hint of current or impending martyrdom as there is, for example, in Revelation, a document often dated in the late 90s. If 1 Peter represents the earlier stages of such eventually lethal suffering, it would point to a date in the late 80s. This date and the high quality of the Greek suggest that 1 Peter is pseudonymous.
Purpose
THE SOCIAL TENSIONS AND the suffering reflected in 2.19–24; 3.14–15; 4.1–4, 12–19; 5.10 are best explained by the conversion of Gentiles who were at home in Greco-Roman culture (see 1.4, 18; 2.10; 4.3–4) to Christianity, which was a despised, foreign religion (see 4.14–16), and by the negative response of the converts’ own families (see 3.1). Roman society was hierarchical, and suspicions about foreign religions included the fear that conversion would impair such established hierarchical relationships and cause slaves and women, for example, to misbehave (see, e.g., Cicero, Laws 2.1–15). Romans expected foreign religions to cause immorality (especially adultery), insubordination within the household, and sedition against the state. 1 Peter counters these expectations. The author emphasizes that those converted are to imitate Christ (2.21; 4.1) by, among other things, doing good (2.12, 15, 20; 3.16; 4.19; see Lk 6.27–28) and not retaliating against those who slander their community (2.18, 20–23; 3.9, 14–16).
Social Context
PLACED IN A SOCIAL CONTEXT whose core values were to be rejected (1.18; 4.3–4), Christians faced the problem of slander and misunderstanding from their neighbors, former friends, and families. Christians were not to go out of their way to be offensive or condemnatory (see 3.15b–16a), but in the final analysis, when Christian values conflicted with those of the society around them, Christians were to remain faithful to their core convictions, even when that entailed suffering, however undeserved it may have seemed. Their example was Christ, who also suffered unjustly. Yet as Christ did not abandon the world, neither were his followers to do that. Faithful Christian conduct could effect changes even within pagan society (2.15), and with such hope Christians were to live out their faith even when persecuted for it. Unlike Paul (see, e.g., Rom 9–10), the author of 1 Peter does not discuss the problem posed by an unbelieving Israel. Rather, adopting OT language to describe the new community grounded in God’s redeeming act in Christ, the author makes clear that God’s new chosen people is to be a unity comprising all people, Gentiles as well as Jews.
Genre and Sources
1 PETER IS A SINGLE, real letter, not, as some claim, a baptismal homily or portions of a baptismal liturgy shaped as or later incorporated into a letter. Rather, it is intended as a circular letter addressed to Christian communities scattered over the northern half of Asia Minor. There are allusions to materials contained in the Gospels, but the author’s sources seem earlier than the written Gospels (cf. 4.14; Mt 5.10; Lk 6.22). Christian catechetical traditions are also employed (e.g., the household code), and 1.20; 3.18–22 may contain elements from early Christian hymns. [DAVID L. BALCH, revised by PAUL J. ACHTEMEIER]
The five provinces mentioned in the address of 1 Peter (1.1) make up a large proportion of Asia Minor.
1 Peter 1
Salutation
1Peter, an apostle of Jesus Christ, To the exiles of the Dispersion in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia, 2who have been chosen and destined by God the Father and sanctified by the Spirit to be obedient to Jesus Christ and to be sprinkled with his blood:
May grace and peace be yours in abundance.
A Living Hope
3Blessed be the God and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! By his great mercy he has given us a new birth into a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, 4and into an inheritance that is imperishable, undefiled, and unfading, kept in heaven for you, 5who are being protected by the power of God through faith for a salvation ready to be revealed in the last time. 6In this you rejoice,a even if now for a little while you have had to suffer various trials, 7so that the genuineness of your faith—bei
ng more precious than gold that, though perishable, is tested by fire—may be found to result in praise and glory and honor when Jesus Christ is revealed. 8Although you have not seenb him, you love him; and even though you do not see him now, you believe in him and rejoice with an indescribable and glorious joy, 9for you are receiving the outcome of your faith, the salvation of your souls.
10Concerning this salvation, the prophets who prophesied of the grace that was to be yours made careful search and inquiry, 11inquiring about the person or time that the Spirit of Christ within them indicated when it testified in advance to the sufferings destined for Christ and the subsequent glory. 12It was revealed to them that they were serving not themselves but you, in regard to the things that have now been announced to you through those who brought you good news by the Holy Spirit sent from heaven—things into which angels long to look!
A Call to Holy Living
13Therefore prepare your minds for action;c discipline yourselves; set all your hope on the grace that Jesus Christ will bring you when he is revealed. 14Like obedient children, do not be conformed to the desires that you formerly had in ignorance. 15Instead, as he who called you is holy, be holy yourselves in all your conduct; 16for it is written, “You shall be holy, for I am holy.”
17If you invoke as Father the one who judges all people impartially according to their deeds, live in reverent fear during the time of your exile. 18You know that you were ransomed from the futile ways inherited from your ancestors, not with perishable things like silver or gold, 19but with the precious blood of Christ, like that of a lamb without defect or blemish. 20He was destined before the foundation of the world, but was revealed at the end of the ages for your sake. 21Through him you have come to trust in God, who raised him from the dead and gave him glory, so that your faith and hope are set on God.
22Now that you have purified your souls by your obedience to the truthd so that you have genuine mutual love, love one another deeplye from the heart.f 23You have been born anew, not of perishable but of imperishable seed, through the living and enduring word of God.g 24For
“All flesh is like grass
and all its glory like the flower of grass.
The grass withers,
and the flower falls,
25but the word of the Lord endures forever.” That word is the good news that was announced to you.
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a Or Rejoice in this
b Other ancient authorities read known
c Gk gird up the loins of your mind
d Other ancient authorities add through the Spirit
e Or constantly
f Other ancient authorities read a pure heart
g Or through the word of the living and enduring God
1.1–2 The salutation includes the author’s self-introduction, a lengthy designation of addressees, and a prayer that replaces the usual greeting.
1.1 Exiles of the Dispersion. The author describes the negative social experience of these primarily gentile Christians in language derived from the OT account of the Jews being exiled from Israel to Babylon, thus beginning the identification of the Christian community as the (new) chosen people.
1.2 Being chosen by God (see 2.9; 5.13) marks out Christians as the new chosen people and thus alienates them religiously and socially from their contemporaries (see 2.11). Sprinkled with his blood, recalling the blood of the covenant (Ex 24.3–8), implies a similar covenant established through Christ. Cf. Heb 9.20–26.
1.3–12 Instead of an opening thanksgiving, a long blessing introduces some of the themes of the Letter (see also 2 Cor 1.3).
1.3 On new birth by hearing (and accepting) God’s word, see v. 23.
1.5 Salvation, including judgment, is primarily God’s future act (see vv. 13, 17; cf. v. 9).
1.10–11 Christians understood Israel’s prophets to have been inspired by the Spirit of Christ and to have foretold events in the life of Jesus and in the history of the early church; see Lk 24.25–27. Such continuity between Israel and the Christian community justified the author’s appropriation of the language of Israel to describe that Christian community.
1.13–21 The author shifts from reflection on the gospel to ethical exhortation.
1.13 Prepare, lit. “gird up your loins,” i.e., gather your robes (see Ex 12.11). At Passover Jews gird themselves for action; here the metaphor is applied to Christian eschatological hope. Hope, introduced in v. 3, is central in vv. 13–21.
1.14 Do not be conformed. See Rom 12.2. The gentile addressees formerly lived in ignorance (see also v. 18; 2.10; 4.2–3).
1.16 Lev 19.2.
1.17 For God as one who judges all people impartially, see Deut 10.17; Acts 10.34; Rom 2.11. Reverent fear. See 2.17. Exile. See 1.1; 2.11.
1.18 Ransomed (see Isa 52.3; Mk 10.45; Rom 3.24–25; Gal 3.13), purchased by Christ, as a slave’s freedom is purchased from a Roman master. Futile ways inherited from…ancestors again characterizes the readers as converted Gentiles (see note on 1.14).
1.19 Lamb may recall Isa 53.7 or Ex 12.5, but the Greek word used suggests the OT sacrificial system in which only perfect animals were acceptable to God. Cf. Jn 1.29; Rev 5.6.
1.20 Destined…revealed. The contrast may be from an early Christian hymn. The author assumes that events of the end of the ages have already happened.
1.22–25 Christians’ ethics are grounded in their new birth through the word of God.
1.22 Genuine mutual love (Greek philadelphia), a term more common in Greco-Roman ethics than in the NT (but see 3.8; 1 Thess 4.9). Love one another deeply. An ethic based on love is at the heart of the Christian faith.
1.23 For another use of seed as metaphor for the word of God, see Mk 4.14–20.
1.24–25a Isa 40.6–8.
1.25b The continuity of Israel and the Christian community is again emphasized: Isaiah’s word becomes the Christian gospel.
1 Peter 2
The Living Stone and a Chosen People
1Rid yourselves, therefore, of all malice, and all guile, insincerity, envy, and all slander. 2Like newborn infants, long for the pure, spiritual milk, so that by it you may grow into salvation—3if indeed you have tasted that the Lord is good.
4Come to him, a living stone, though rejected by mortals yet chosen and precious in God’s sight, and 5like living stones, let yourselves be builta into a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ. 6For it stands in scripture:
“See, I am laying in Zion a stone,
a cornerstone chosen and precious;
and whoever believes in himb will not be put to shame.”
7To you then who believe, he is precious; but for those who do not believe,
“The stone that the builders rejected
has become the very head of the corner,”
8and
“A stone that makes them stumble,
and a rock that makes them fall.”
They stumble because they disobey the word, as they were destined to do.
9But you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people,c in order that you may proclaim the mighty acts of him who called you out of darkness into his marvelous light.
10Once you were not a people,
but now you are God’s people;
once you had not received mercy,
but now you have received mercy.
Live as Servants of God
11Beloved, I urge you as aliens and exiles to abstain from the desires of the flesh that wage war against the soul. 12Conduct yourselves honorably among the Gentiles, so that, though they malign you as evildoers, they may see your honorable deeds and glorify God when he comes to judge.d
13For the Lord’s sake accept the authority of every human institution,e whether of the emperor as supreme, 14or of governors, as sent by him to punish those who do wrong and to praise those who do right. 15For it is God’s will that by doing right you should silence t
he ignorance of the foolish. 16As servantsf of God, live as free people, yet do not use your freedom as a pretext for evil. 17Honor everyone. Love the family of believers.g Fear God. Honor the emperor.
The Example of Christ’s Suffering
18Slaves, accept the authority of your masters with all deference, not only those who are kind and gentle but also those who are harsh. 19For it is a credit to you if, being aware of God, you endure pain while suffering unjustly. 20If you endure when you are beaten for doing wrong, what credit is that? But if you endure when you do right and suffer for it, you have God’s approval. 21For to this you have been called, because Christ also suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that you should follow in his steps.
22“He committed no sin,
and no deceit was found in his mouth.”
23When he was abused, he did not return abuse; when he suffered, he did not threaten; but he entrusted himself to the one who judges justly. 24He himself bore our sins in his body on the cross,h so that, free from sins, we might live for righteousness; by his woundsi you have been healed. 25For you were going astray like sheep, but now you have returned to the shepherd and guardian of your souls.
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a Or you yourselves are being built
b Or it
c Gk a people for his possession
d Other ancient authorities add through the Spirit
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