by Ervin Staub
Sabato, Ernesto, on victim selection in Argentina, 220-1
sacrifice in continuum of benevolence, 276-8
Sadat, Anwar, peace efforts of, 257
sadism, 139-40
Saloth Sar, see Pol Pot
scapegoating: in aggression displacement, 64; of Armenians, 176; as coping mechanism, 48-9; for ideological ideals, 50; ingroup-outgroup differentiation and, 61-2; psychological need satisfaction and, 17; for World War I loss, 92
Schacht, Hjalmar, opposition by, 152
Schindler, Oscar, as rescuer of Jews, 77, 81, 140, 141, 166-8
Schmitt, Carl, as Nazi supporter, 107
Schmookler, Andrew, on arming and threat, 264; on selection for power, 262
schools, see education
Schutzstaffel, see SS
SD (Sicherheitsdienst), 135
secular humanism, attack on, 61–2
security, national, as ideology, 254-5
security echelon, see SS
security needs, importance of, 264-5
Segev, Tom, on SS membership, 130
self-acceptance, lack of, in perpetrators, 71-2
self-actualization in relationship to others, 268-9
self-awareness: and individual responsibility, 148; lack of, in perpetrators, 71-2; in nations, 253-4;
self-censorship of press, 271-3
self-concept, 234; of Argentine military, 214-17; burdensome, 266; deficient, combined with superiority feelings, 19; distortion of, 253-4; of Germans, 104-8; of groups, 18-19; of Khmer Rouge, 199-200; loss of, and aggression, 41; national, 49, 54-5; vs. “other-conception,” 251; of perpetrators, 70; realism in, 253-4; self-censorship and, 273; self-examination of, 254; societal, 251-2; threats to, 15-16, 35-6,49; of United States, 252
self-defense: aggression as, 39; in difficult life conditions, 15; psychological, 15, 39-40
self-esteem: of Germans, 104-8; promotion of, with aggression, 39-40; scapegoating and, 17; threats to, 35-6, 38, 54-5
self-interest: in group, 262-3; as root of evil, 26; as source of genocide, 85-6
self-perception, see self-awareness; self-concept
self-preservation vs. fanaticism, 28
Semai tribe, Malaysia, as nonaggressive society, 53-4
Sereny, Gita: on concentration camps, 46; on prisoner humiliation, 137
Shiites, fanaticism of, 76
Shoah (film), 68
Sicherheitsdienst, 135
Sihanouk, Norodom, see Norodom Sihanouk, Prince
slavery: abolition of, group action in, 261; in Cambodia, 196-7; in Athens, 57
“sleeper” concept, 133-4
Sobibor camp, inmate resistance in, 162
social change: adaptability and, 14-15; in Argentina, 86; artists’ influence on, 282; avenues for, 281-3; conservatives’ reaction to, 46-7; continuum of benevolence and, 276-7; crosscutting relations and, 274-6; in El Salvador, 86; euphemisms in, 282; families in, 280; group connections in, 278-9; group effects on, 261-2; in Guatemala, 86; hostility and, 64; in Iran, 14; language role in, 282; leadership influence on, 282; learning by participation in, 275, 276-8; media influence on, 282; in monolithic society, 14-15; motivations arising from, 264; needs arising from, 264; opposition to, 86; in pluralistic society, 19; positive socialization and, 279-81; potential for, in U.S., 262; requirements for, 261; resocialization by, 25; role of ideas in, 282; schools’ role in, 280-1; social justice and, 263; superordinate goals and, 274-5; theories of, 262; writers’ influence on, 282
social characteristics, effects of, 14
social goal theory (see also personal goal theory) 28-33
social identity (see also societal self-concept), 42
social institutions, cultural characteristics of, 65-6
social justice: enablement and, 267-8; and group violence, 266-7; positive socialization and, 280
social standards as motivation, 37
socialists in Germany, 114
socialization: of children, and devaluation, 278; as orientation to authority, 198; positive, 279-81; value development in, 24-5
societal characteristics (see also cultural characteristics): deep structure (historical) of, 20; effects of, 18-20
societal self-concept, 251-2
societal tilt, 118-19
sociobiology and aggression, 52-3
sociopolitical organizations and culture, 65-6
Son Ngoc Thanh and Khmer Rouge ideology, 202-3
Son Sann, 209
Sonderkommando, duties of, 136
South Africa, killings in, 238
South America, Indian killings in, 85-6
Soviet Union: aggression idealization in, 54; anti-Semitism in, 20; on Argentine killings, 230; devaluation of U.S. in, 278; dissidents in, as mentally ill, 259; Estonian Jews immigration to, 161; extermination of citizens of, in Holocaust, 9; Hitler’s alliance with, 96; ideology of antagonism and, 251; as Khmer Rouge enemy, 202; national security ideology of, 255; peasant starvation in, 3; peer influence in, 51; prisoner mistreatment by, 97; prisoners of war from, rebellion of, 158; before revolution, 173, 174; Stalinist purges in, 20, 85; Ukrainian SS members from, 136-7; on U.N. genocide resolution, 8; United States relationship with, 242, 257; wars against, 49
Sparta, moral orientation of, 57
Special Troops (Einsatzgruppen), 9, 29, 135-6
spirituality needs, 265
SS: anti-Semitism of, 131, 136; authoritarianism and, 132-3; behavioral shifts of, 145-7; as breeders of master race, 97, 106; camouflage of victims’ fate by, 160; capacity for mistreatment, 66; characteristics of, 131-4, 144-5; comradeship in, 130; concentration camps of, 135-7, 141-4, 149, see also concentration camps; creation of, 128-9; Death’s Head Units of, 135; doctors in, see doctors in Holocaust; dormant violence in, 133-4; Einsatzgruppen of, 9, 29, 135-6; evolution of, 128-34; family background of, 132; family life of, 111; functions of, 128-34, 135-7; Gestapo operation by, 135; group identification rituals of, 60; Himmler as leader of, 128-9; “ideal,” 137-8; individual responsibility and, 148-9; Jewish property appropriated by, 129-30; kindness shown by, 140-1; lack of empathy in, 68-9; late joiners in, 141; learning by participation in, 134-7; mental health of, 91; military organization of, 78; moral equilibration in, 147; oath of, 129; in occupied territories, 153; opposition to Nazi policies by, 152; personal differences in, 138; prestige of, 129-30; psychology of, 91, 144-7; as protectors of Jews, 141; responsibility for actions shifted from, 84; role-person merging in, 137-41; sadism in, 140; selection of, 129-30; self-selection of, 134; sense of power in, 139-40; Sicherheitsdienst unit of, 135; “sleeper” concept and, 133-4; threats of Jewish emigration by, 155-6; training of, 78, 129, 134; Ukrainian guards in, 136-7; victim protection from, 81; Waffen SS division of, 97, 135
Stalinism: in Khmer Rouge ideology, 202; killings under, 20, 85
Stangl (Treblinka commandant), 132, 137
Star of David on clothing, 118
starvation: in Cambodian autogenocide, 11; in Holocaust camps, 9; international aid in, 4
Staub, Ervin: on learning by doing, 80; on motivation and personal goal theory, 22-3, 36-8; on prosocial value orientation, 86-7
Steiner, John, on SS member characteristics, 132-4
stereotyping: in ethnocentrism, 59-60; of German Jews, 102
sterilization of genetically inferior, 121
stormtroopers, see SA
stranger anxiety in infants, 59
stress, see difficult life conditions
Sturmabteilung, see SA
Styron, William, fiction about Poland, 154
subversives, Argentine military definition of, 224
suicide missions, fanatic nature of, 76
superordinate goals, 274-6, 279
survival vs. death of others, 45-6
Sweden, Danish Jews’ refuge in, 152
Tajfel, Henry, on group relations, 42n
television, aggression idealization in, 54
Teresa, Mother, 77
terrorism: as cultural ideal, 54; as evil, 2
6
Terrorism in Argentina publication, 216
threat: in aggression instigation, 35-6; perception of, 264; self-esteem and, 55
torture, and torturers: in Argentine mass killings, 11, 220-5; enjoyment of, 225; history of, 26; learning of, 82; perpetrators of, 70, 226-7; psychology of, 244-5; purposes of, 244; of women, 222, 224, 226
totalitarianism: in Cambodia, 197-8; Nietzsche’s view on, 113; as predisposing factor in genocide, 19, 125-7
tourism promoting group connections, 278
Toynbee, Arnold, on Armenians, 179
training (see also education): of Argentine military, 214-15; 219-20; of SS, 78, 129, 134; of torturers, 82
transcendence, need for, 265
Treaty of Versailles, 91-3, 116
Treblinka: camp song of, 68; commandant of, 132, 137; death and survival attitudes in, 45-6; inmate resistance in, 162
Trocme, Andre, as rescuer of Jews, 165
Trumpener, Ulrich, on Turkish genocide, 186
trust: within groups, 265-6; and positive reciprocity, 260
Tuol Sleng, killings at, 193
Turanism (and Pan-Turkism) ideology, 174, 181-2
Turkey (see also Turkish genocide of Armenians): Bulgarian massacres by, and William Gladstone’s reaction, 184-5
Turkish genocide of Armenians.Armenian “provocation” in, 178-80; authoritarianism and, 176; bureaucracy absent in, 29; bystander role in, 184-7; casualties in, 7, 10; continuum of destruction in, 176-7; cultural precondition in, 175-6, 233; devaluation of minorities in, 175-6; difficult life conditions preceding, 44, 173-5; Fonaticism in, 76; Germany as bystander in, 185-7; government uphearal before, 76; historical conditions preceding, 173-5; ideology of Pan-Turkism and, 174, 181-2; killing methods in, 177, 184; kurds in, 10, 177, 182; motivation for, 23; Naim-Andonian documents about, 183-4; orders for, 183; origins of, 232-5; vs. other genocides, 6-7, 176-7; overview of, 10; perpetrators in, 78; readiness for, 85; resistance in, 178; self-destructive nature of, 184; Turkish killings by Armenians and, 179; Van uprising in, 179-80; war effects on, 47; Young Turks in, 174, 176, 177, 178, 181-2
Ukraine: anti-Semitism in, 136; SS members from, 136-7
United Nations, genocide resolution of, 7-8
United States: aggressiveness in, 242; anti-Semitism in, 157; Argentina military training by, 214-15; in Argentine killings, 229-30; authoritarianism in, 242; bombing of Cambodia by, 190, 204-5; as bystander in Cambodian autogenocide, 208-9; cultural characteristics of, 241-2; devaluation of group in, 242; devaluation of Soviet Union in, 278; difficult life conditions in, 243; equality of opportunity values in, 55-6; genocide potential of, 241-3; ideology of antagonism and, 251; Indian killings in, 85; individualism in, 268-70; institutions for social welfare in, 267; Jewish immigration to, 156; as Khmer Rouge enemy, 202; lynching in, 44; national interest of, post-World War II, 258; national security ideology of, 254-5; peer influence in, 51; pluralism in, 242, 243; self-concept of, 252; social change potential in, 262; Soviet Union relations and, 257
United States Marines, training of, 78
“us”-“them” differentiation, 58-62, 244; ideology of antagonism and, 250-1
Utopian thinking in Khmer Rouge ideology, 203
values (see also morality and moral values): as motivation, 38; Nietzsche’s views on, 112
Van uprising (1915), 179-80
Versailles, Treaty of, 91-3, 116
Vichy France, resistance in, 165-6
Vickery, Michael, on Cambodian autogenocide, 193-4, 200, 201, 202-3
victimization, continuum of, 165
victims (see also devaluation; Jews; scapegoating): broadening circle of, in euthanasia program, 121; bystanders becoming, 87; definition of, 61; derogatory labels for, 61; euphemistic language used by, 29, 156; excluded from moral domain, 57; guard behavior toward, 68-9; just-world hypothesis and, 17-18, 79-80; nonhuman status in headhunter cultures, 52; passivity of, 31-2, 160-5; psychology of, 162; role in Holocaust, 31-2; selection of (Argentina), 11, 61, 223-6; selection of (Cambodia), 8, 10-11, 61,192-3, 196; selection of (Holocaust), 86
Vienna, Hitler in, 98
Vietnam: Cambodian invasion by, 191; Khmer Rouge hatred of, 195, 198-9, 201-2; Sihanouk indulgence of, 190
Vietnam War: compartmentalization of functions in, 29; My Lai massacre in, 44-5; opposition to, 87; posttraumatic stress disorder and, 30; psychosocical effects of, 47-8
Viola, General Roberto E., 230
violence (see also aggression): in Argentina, 211-12; in Cambodia, 200-1; climate for, institutions in, 66; as cultural characteristic, 52, 54-5; economic conditions and, 44; poor self-esteem and, 40; prevention of, 243-4; in SS, 131, 133-4; in Warsaw ghetto, 139
volunteerism: education for, 277n; as group connection mechanism, 279; in United States, 269
von Maltitz, Horst, on Nazi ideology, 96-7
Waffen SS, 97, 135
Wagner, Richard, operas of, 113
Wallenberg, Raoul, 81, 140, 166-7, 168-9
Wandervogel, 115
Wannsee Conference, Final Solution creation in, 9
war (see also World War I; World war II); belonging and, 252-4; better-world thinking and, 251; compartmentalization of functions in, 29; continuum of antagonism in, 250; cultural preconditions of, 250-7; effects of, 14; vs. genocide, 4; glorification of, 255; ideology of antagonism and, 250-1; India-Pakistan, 49, 250; ingroup protection in, 60; just-war thinking and, 255-6; leadership power in, 256-7; massacres in, 3, 44-5; minimalism as deterrent for, 258-9; monolithic society and, 256; motivations for, 249-50; national goals and, 251-2; national interest definition and, 257-8; national security and, 254-5; nationalism and, 252-4; Nietzsche’s views on, 112; nuclear, misconceptions about, 255; origins of, 249-60; pluralistic society and, 256; vs. positive reciprocity, 259-60; preparation for, 254, 256; psychosocial effects of, 30, 44, 47-8, 113-14; self-concept and, 251-4; world views contributing to, 255-6
War Refugee Board, 156; Wallenberg work with, 168
Warsaw ghetto, 139, 162
Wegner, Armin T., on Armenian genocide, 184
Weimar Republic: collapse of, Holocaust origin and, 32; hate for, 92-3; weakness of, 114
Wiesel, Eli, on death and survival, 45-6
Weltanschauung, see world view
White, Ralph, on macho pride and war, 250
Whiting, Beatrice and John, on cultural differences in altruism, 51-2
Wilson, E. O., on sociobiology and aggression, 35, 52-3
women: torture of, 222, 224, 226; in Turkish genocide, 10;
world view: and aggression potential, 55; of Argentine military, 215; in Germany, 93, 108; importance of, 264; of Khmer Rouge, 194-5; of perpetrators, 70; war glorification and, 255-6
World War I: Armenian violence against Turks in, 179; effects of, 47-8, 91-3; German excuses in, 106-7; psychosocial consequences of, 30, 44; Turkish genocide in, see Turkish genocide
World War II: Argentine military world view after, 215; Holocaust beginning in, 47; loss of, intensified killing of Jews during, 85, 149-50; United States national interest after, 258
writers and social change, 282
Wyman, David, on abandonment of Jews during World War II, 156
Young Turks: Armenian cooperation sought by, 178-9; as genocide organizers, 182; German alliance of, 174; ideology of, 181-2; killings under, 177; on obedience, 176; origins of, 174
youth, German, 30, 113-15
youth groups: in Cambodia, 205-6; in Germany, 114-15
Yugoslavia, Pol Pot visit to, 203
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