"He who governs by means of his virtue is… like the Pole Star: it remains in its place while all the lesser stars do homage to it."
Confucius
Rather than imposing rigid laws and stern punishments, Confucius felt that the best way to deal with crime lay in instilling a sense of shame for bad behaviour. Although people may avoid committing crime if guided by laws and subdued by punishment, they do not learn a real sense of right and wrong, whereas if they are guided by example and subdued by respect, they develop a sense of shame for any misdemeanours and learn to become truly good.
The Chinese emperor presides over the civil service examinations in this Song dynasty painting. The exams were introduced during Confucius’s lifetime and were based on his ideas.
Unpopular ideas
Confucius’s moral and political philosophy combined ideas about the innate goodness and sociability of human nature with the rigid, formal structure of traditional Chinese society. Unsurprisingly, given his position as a court administrator, he found an important place for the new meritocratic class of scholars. However, his ideas were met with suspicion and were not adopted during his lifetime. Members of the royal and noble ruling families were unhappy with his implied dismissal of their divine right to rule, and felt threatened by the power he proposed for their ministers and advisors. The administrators might have enjoyed more control to rein in potentially despotic rulers, but they doubted the idea that the people could be governed by example, and were unwilling to give up their right to exercise power through laws and punishment.
"What you know, you know; what you don’t know, you don’t know. This is true wisdom."
Confucius
Later political and philosophical thinkers also had their criticisms of Confucianism. Mozi, a Chinese philosopher born shortly after Confucius’s death, agreed with his more modern ideas of meritocracy and leading by example, but felt that his emphasis on family relationships would lead to nepotism and cronyism. Around the same time, military thinkers such as Sun Tzu had little time for the moral philosophy underlying Confucius’s political theory, and instead took a more practical approach to matters of government, advocating an authoritarian and even ruthless system to ensure the defence of the state. Nevertheless, elements of Confucianism were gradually incorporated into Chinese society in the two centuries following his death. Championed by Mencius (372–289 BCE), they gained some popularity in the 4th century BCE.
Religious functions were absorbed into Confucianism when it became the official philosophy of China. Confucian temples such as this one in Nanjing sprang up throughout the country.
The state philosophy
Confucianism may have been adequate to govern in peacetime, but it was felt by many not to be robust enough for the ensuing Warring States period and the struggle to form a unified Chinese empire. During this period, a pragmatic and authoritarian system of government known as Legalism supplanted Confucius’s ideas, and continued as the emperor asserted his authority over the new empire. By the 2nd century BCE, however, peace had returned to China, and Confucianism was adopted as the official philosophy of the state under the Han dynasty. It continued to dominate the structure of Chinese society from then on, particularly in the practice of recruiting the most able scholars to the administrative class. The civil service exams introduced in 605 CE were based on classic Confucian texts, and this practice continued into the 20th century and the formation of the Chinese Republic.
Confucianism has not entirely disappeared under China’s communist regime, and it had a subtle influence on the structure of society right up to the Cultural Revolution. Today, elements of Confucian thinking, such as those that deal with societal relationships and the notion of filial loyalty, are still deeply ingrained in the Chinese way of life. Confucian ideas are once again being taken seriously as the country shifts from Maoist communism to a Chinese version of a mixed economy.
CONFUCIUS
Despite his importance in Chinese history, little is known of Confucius’s life. He is traditionally believed to have been born in 551 BCE, in Qufu in the state of Lu, China. His name was originally Kong Qiu (he earned the honorific title “Kong Fuzi” much later), and his family was both respected and comfortably well off. Nevertheless, as a young man he worked as a servant after his father died in order to support his family, and studied in his spare time to join the civil service. He became an administrator in the Zhou court, where he developed his ideas of how a state should be governed, but his advice was ignored and he resigned from the position. He spent the rest of his life travelling throughout the Chinese empire, teaching his philosophy and theories of government. He eventually returned to Qufu, where he died in 479 BCE.
Key works
Analects
Doctrine of the Mean
The Great Learning
(All assembled during the 12th century by Chinese scholars.)
See also: Sun Tzu • Mozi • Han Fei Tzu • Sun Yat-Sen • Mao Zedong
IN CONTEXT
IDEOLOGY
Realism
FOCUS
Diplomacy and war
BEFORE
8th century BCE A “golden age” of Chinese philosophy begins, which produces the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought.
6th century BCE Confucius proposes a framework for civil society based on traditional values.
AFTER
4th century BCE Chanakya’s advice to Chandragupta Maurya helps to establish the Mauryan empire in India.
1532 Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince is published, five years after his death.
1937 Mao Zedong writes On Guerrilla Warfare.
In the late 6th century BCE, China was reaching the end of an era of peaceful prosperity – the so-called Spring and Autumn period – in which philosophers had flourished. Much of the thinking had focused on moral philosophy or ethics, and the political philosophy that followed from this concentrated on the morally correct way that the state should organize its internal affairs. The culmination of this came with Confucius’s integration of traditional virtues into a hierarchy led by a sovereign and administered by a bureaucracy of scholars.
Towards the end of the Spring and Autumn period, however, the political stability of the various states of China became fragile, and tensions between them increased as the population grew. Rulers of the states not only had to manage their internal affairs, but also to defend themselves against attack from neighbouring states.
Military strategy
In this atmosphere, military advisors became as important as the civil bureaucrats, and military strategy began to inform political thinking. The most influential work on the subject was The Art of War, believed to have been written by Sun Tzu, a general in the army of the King of Wu. The opening passage reads: “The art of war is of vital importance to the state. It is a matter of life and death, a road either to safety or to ruin. Hence it is a subject of inquiry which can on no account be neglected.” This marked a distinct break from the political philosophy of the time, and Sun Tzu’s work was perhaps the first explicit statement that war and military intelligence are critical elements of the business of the state. The Art of War deals with the practicalities of protecting and maintaining the prosperity of the state. Where previous thinkers had concentrated on the structure of civil society, this treatise focuses on international politics, discussing public administration only in connection with the business of planning and waging wars, or the economics of maintaining military and intelligence services.
Sun Tzu’s detailed description of the art of war has been seen as providing a framework for political organization of any sort. He gives a list of the “principles of war” that are to be considered when planning a campaign. In addition to practical matters such as weather and terrain, the list includes the moral influence of the ruler, the ability and qualities of the general, and the organization and discipline of the men. Implicit in these principles of war is a hierarchical structure with a sovereign at its head, taking ad
vice from and giving commands to his generals, who lead and organize their troops.
For Sun Tzu, the role of the sovereign is to provide moral leadership. The people must be convinced that their cause is just before they will give their support, and a ruler should lead by example; this was an idea that Sun Tzu shared with Confucius. Like the bureaucrat of civil society, the general acts as both advisor to the ruler and administrator of his commands.
Unsurprisingly, Sun Tzu places great emphasis on the qualities of the general, describing him as the “bulwark of the state”. His training and experience inform the counsel he gives the sovereign, effectively determining policy, but are also vital to the organization of the army. At the head of the chain of command, he controls the logistics, and especially the training and discipline of the men. The Art of War recommends that discipline be rigorously enforced with harsh penalties for disobedience, but that this should be tempered by a consistent application of rewards and punishments.
A terracotta army was built to line the tomb of Emperor Qin Shi Huang, showing the importance of the military to him. Qin lived 200 years after Sun Tzu, but would have read his works closely.
Knowing when to fight
While this description of a military hierarchy mirrored the structure of Chinese society, The Art of War was much more innovative in its recommendations for international politics. Like many generals before and since, Sun Tzu believed that the purpose of the military was to protect the state and ensure its welfare, and that war should always be a last resort. A good general should know when to fight and when not to fight, remembering that an enemy’s resistance can often be broken without armed conflict. A general should first try to thwart the enemy’s plans; failing that, he should defend against attack; only failing that should he launch an offensive.
"If you know both yourself and your enemy, you can win a hundred battles without jeopardy."
Sun Tzu
To avoid the necessity for war, Sun Tzu advocated maintaining a strong defence and forming alliances with neighbouring states. As a costly war is harmful to both sides, it often makes sense to come to a peaceful settlement. Prolonged campaigns, especially tactics such as laying siege to an enemy’s city, are such a drain on resources that their cost often outweighs the benefits of victory. The sacrifices that have to be made by the people put a strain on their loyalty to the moral justness of the cause.
Military intelligence
The key to stable international relationships, argues Sun Tzu, is intelligence, which was then the responsibility of the military. Spies provide vital information on a potential enemy’s intentions and capabilities, allowing the generals who command the spies to advise the ruler on the likelihood of victory in the event of conflict. Along the same lines, Sun Tzu goes on to explain that the next most important element in this information warfare is deception. By feeding misinformation to the enemy about defences, for example, war can often be averted. He also advised against what he saw as the folly of attempting to destroy an enemy in battle, as this decreased the rewards that could be gained from the victory – both the goodwill of any defeated soldiers and the wealth of any territory gained.
"A leader leads by example not by force."
Sun Tzu
Underlying the very practical advice in The Art of War is a traditional cultural foundation based on moral values of justice, appropriateness, and moderation. It states that military tactics, international politics, and war exist to uphold these values and should be conducted in accordance with them. The state exercises its military capability to punish those that harm or threaten it from outside, just as it uses the law to punish criminals within it. When done in a morally justifiable way, the state is rewarded by happier people and the acquisition of territory and wealth. The Art of War became an influential text among the rulers, generals, and ministers of the various states in the struggle for a unified Chinese empire. It was later an important influence on the tactics of revolutionaries, including Mao Zedong and Ho Chi Minh. It is now required reading at many military academies, and is often included as a set text in courses on politics, business, and economics.
The Great Wall of China, begun in the 7th century BCE, acted to fence off newly conquered territories. For Sun Tzu, such defensive measures were as important as attacking force.
SUN TZU
Traditionally believed to be the author of the legendary treatise The Art of War, Sun Wu (later known as Sun Tzu, “the Master Sun”) was probably born in the State of Qi or Wu in China in around 544 BCE. Nothing is known of his early life, but he rose to fame as a general serving the State of Wu in many successful campaigns against the neighbouring State of Chu.
He became an indispensable advisor (equivalent to a contracted military consultant today) to King Helü of Wu on matters of military strategy, writing his famous treatise to be used as a handbook by the ruler. A concise book, made up of 13 short chapters, it was widely read after his death in c.496 BCE, both by state leaders fighting for control of the Chinese empire, and military thinkers in Japan and Korea. It was first translated into a European language, French, in 1782, and may have influenced Napoleon.
Key work
6th century BCE The Art of War
See also: Chanakya • Han Fei Tzu • Niccolò Machiavelli • Mao Zedong • Che Guevara
IN CONTEXT
IDEOLOGY
Mohism
FOCUS
Meritocracy
BEFORE
6th century BCE Chinese philosopher Laozi advocates Daoism – acting in accordance with the Way (dao).
5th century BCE Confucius proposes a government system based on traditional values enacted by a class of scholars.
AFTER
4th century BCE The authoritarian ideas of Shang Yang and Han Fei Tzu are adopted in the state of Qin as the doctrine of Legalism.
372–289 BCE The philosopher Mencius advocates a return to a form of Confucianism.
20th century Mozi’s ideas influence both Sun Yat-Sen’s Republic and the communist People’s Republic of China.
Towards the end of the “golden age” of Chinese philosophy that produced the so-called Hundred Schools of Thought between the 8th and the 3rd centuries BCE, thinkers began to apply their ideas of moral philosophy to the practical business of social and political organization. Foremost among these was Confucius, who proposed a hierarchy based on traditional family relationships, reinforced with ceremony and ritual. Within this hierarchy, however, he recognized the importance of an administrative class to aid and advise the ruler, an idea that was later developed by Mozi.
Both Confucius and Mozi believed that the wellbeing of the state relied on the competence and dependability of the bureaucratic class, but they differed over the way that administrators should be chosen. To Mozi, Confucius adhered too closely to the conventions of the noble families, which did not necessarily produce the virtue and ability essential to a successful bureaucracy. Mozi felt that the qualities and skills for high office resulted from aptitude and study, regardless of background.
For Mozi, skilled workers such as carpenters could – with training and aptitude – be made into able administrators in government.
A unifying code
“Elevating the worthy”, as Mozi described his meritocratic idea, forms the cornerstone of Mohist political thinking, but it is also linked to other aspects of Mozi’s moral philosophy. He believed in the inherent goodness of people, and felt that they should live in an atmosphere of “universal love”. At the same time, he recognized the human tendency to act in self-interest. This, he believed, often happened in situations of conflict, which arose not from a lack of morality, but from differing ideas of what is morally correct. It was therefore the task of political leaders to unite the people with a coherent moral code that was enforced by a strong and ethical system of government. This code would be based on what was necessary for the greatest good of society, and formulating it required knowledge and wisdom that was only available to the lea
rned.
"Exaltation of the virtuous is the root of government."
Mozi
Mozi’s preference for a ministerial class chosen on merit and ability no doubt stemmed from his own experience of working his way up to high office from humble beginnings. He saw the potential for nepotism and cronyism when the nobility appointed ministers. He also believed that government needed to be run in such a way that it would cultivate the prosperity of the state for the welfare of the people as a whole. Although Mozi attracted a large group of followers, he was regarded as an idealist and Mohism was not adopted by the Chinese rulers of the time. However, elements of his political thinking were incorporated into later political systems. For example, his emphasis on enforcing a unified moral code was a significant influence on the authoritarian Legalist regimes that arose in the 4th century BCE. In the 20th century, Mozi’s notions of equality of opportunity were rediscovered by Chinese leaders Sun Yat-Sen and Mao Zedong.
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