INTRODUCTION
From its beginnings in the 1st century BCE, the Roman empire grew in strength, extending its reign over Europe, Mediterranean Africa, and the Middle East. By the 2nd century CE, it was at the height of its power, and Roman imperial culture, with its emphasis on prosperity and stability, threatened to replace the values of scholarship and philosophy associated with the republics of Athens and Rome. At the same time, a new religion was taking root within the empire: Christianity.
For the next millennium, political thinking was dominated by the Church in Europe, and political theory during the Middle Ages was shaped by Christian theology. In the 7th century, another powerful religion, Islam, emerged. It spread from Arabia into Asia and Africa, and also influenced political thinking in Christian Europe.
The impact of Christianity
Roman philosophers such as Plotinus returned to the ideas of Plato, and the “neo-Platonist” movement influenced early Christian thinkers. Augustine of Hippo interpreted Plato’s ideas in the light of Christian faith to examine questions such as the difference between divine and human law, and whether there could be such a thing as a just war.
The pagan Roman empire had simply had little time for philosophy and theory, but in early Christian Europe, political thinking was subordinated to religious dogma, and the ideas of ancient Greece and Rome were largely neglected. A major factor in this subordination of ideas was the rise to political power of the Church and the papacy. Medieval Europe was effectively ruled by the Church, a situation that was formalized in 800 by the creation of the Holy Roman empire under Charlemagne.
Islamic influence
Meanwhile, in Arabia, Muhammad established Islam as a religion with an imperialist agenda, and it rapidly established itself as a major political as well as religious power. Unlike Christianity, Islam was open to secular political thinking and encouraged wide scholarship and the study of non-Muslim thinkers. Libraries were set up in cities throughout the Islamic empire to preserve classical texts, and scholars integrated the ideas of Plato and Aristotle into Islamic theology. Cities such as Baghdad became centres of learning, and scholars such as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun emerged as political theorists.
Meanwhile, in Europe, scholarship had become the preserve of the clergy, and the structure of society was prescribed by the Church, leaving little room for dissent. It would take Islamic influence to bring fresh ideas to medieval Europe, as scholars rediscovered the classical texts. In the 12th century, the texts that Islamic scholars had preserved and translated began to come to the notice of Christian scholars, particularly in Spain, where the two faiths co-existed. News of the rediscovery spread across the Christian world, and despite the suspicion of the Church authorities, there was a rush to find and translate not only the texts, but also their Islamic commentaries.
Difficult questions
A new generation of Christian philosophers became acquainted with classical thinking. Thomas Aquinas tried to integrate the ideas of Aristotle into Christian theology. This posed questions that had previously been avoided, on subjects such as the divine right of kings, and revived debate about secular versus divine law. The introduction of secular thinking into intellectual life had a profound effect within the Holy Roman empire. Separate nation-states were asserting their independence and rulers came into conflict with the papacy. The authority of the Church in civil affairs was brought into question, and philosophers such as Giles of Rome and Marsilius of Padua had to come down on one side or the other.
As the Middle Ages drew to an end, new nations challenged the authority of the Church, but people were also beginning to question the power of their monarchs. In England, King John was forced by his barons to concede some of his powers. In Italy, dynastic tyrants were replaced by republics such as Florence, where the Renaissance began. It was in Florence that Niccolò Machiavelli, a potent symbol of Renaissance thought, shocked the world by producing a political philosophy that was entirely pragmatic in its morality.
IN CONTEXT
IDEOLOGY
Christianity
FOCUS
Just government
BEFORE
4th century BCE In the Republic and Laws, Plato stresses the importance of justice in an ideal state.
1st century BCE Cicero opposes the overthrow of the Roman Republic and its replacement with an emperor.
306 CE Constantine I becomes the first Christian emperor of the Roman empire.
AFTER
13th century Thomas Aquinas uses Augustine’s arguments to define a just war.
14th century Ibn Khaldun says that government’s role is to prevent injustice.
c.1600 Francisco Suárez and the School of Salamanca create a philosophy of natural law.
In 380 CE, Christianity was effectively adopted as the official religion of the Roman empire, and as the Church’s power and influence grew, its relationship with the state became a disputed issue. One of the first political philosophers to address this question was Augustine of Hippo, a scholar and teacher who became a convert to Christianity. In his attempt to integrate classical philosophy into the religion, he was greatly influenced by his study of Plato, which also formed the basis for his political thinking.
As a Roman citizen, Augustine believed in the tradition of a state bound by the rule of law, but as a scholar, he agreed with Aristotle and Plato that the goal of the state was to enable its people to lead the good and virtuous life. For a Christian, this meant living by the divine laws prescribed by the Church. However, Augustine believed that, in practice, few men lived according to divine laws, and the vast majority lived in a state of sin. He distinguished between two kingdoms: the civitas Dei (city of God) and the civitas terrea (city of Earth). In the latter kingdom, sin predominates. Augustine sees the influence of the Church on the state as the only means to ensure that the laws of the land are made with reference to divine laws, allowing people to live in the civitas Dei. The presence of such just laws distinguishes a state from a band of robbers. Robbers and pirates join together under a leader to steal from their neighbours. The robbers may have rules, but they are not just rules. However, Augustine further points out that even in a sinful civitas terrea, the authority of the state can ensure order through the rule of law, and that order is something we all have a reason to want.
Just war
Augustine’s emphasis on justice, with its roots in Christian doctrine, also applied to the business of war. While he believed all war to be evil, and that to attack and plunder other states was unjust, he conceded that a “just war” fought for a just cause, such as defending the state against aggression, or to restore peace, did exist, though it should be embarked upon with regret and only as a last resort.
"Without justice an association of men in the bond of law cannot possibly continue."
Augustine
This conflict between secular and divine law, and the attempt to reconcile the two, began the power struggle between Church and state that ran through the Middle Ages.
Augustine’s vision of a state living according to Christian principles was outlined in his work City of God, in which he described the relationship between the Roman empire and God’s law.
AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO
Aurelius Augustine was born in Thagaste (now Souk-Ahras, Algeria) in Roman North Africa, to a pagan father and a Christian mother. He studied Latin literature in Madaurus and rhetoric in Carthage, where he came across the Persian Manichean religion, and became interested in philosophy through the works of Cicero. He taught in Thagaste and Carthage until 373, when he moved to Rome and Milan, and there was inspired by theologian Bishop Ambrose to explore Plato’s philosophy, and later to become a Christian. He was baptised in 387, and was ordained a priest in Thagaste in 391. He finally settled in Hippo (now Bone, Algeria), establishing a religious community and becoming its bishop in 396. As well as his autobiographical Confessions, he wrote a number of works on theology and philos
ophy. He died during a siege of Hippo by the Vandals in 430.
Key works
387–395 On Free Will
397–401 Confessions
413–425 City of God
See also: Plato • Cicero • Thomas Aquinas • Francisco Suárez • Thomas Hobbes
IN CONTEXT
IDEOLOGY
Islam
FOCUS
Just war
BEFORE
6th century BCE In The Art of War, Sun Tzu argues that the military is essential to the state.
c. 413 Augustine describes a government without justice as no better than a band of robbers.
AFTER
13th century Thomas Aquinas defines the conditions for a just war.
1095 Christians launch the First Crusade to wrest control of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims.
1932 In Towards Understanding Islam, Abul Ala Maududi insists that Islam embraces all aspects of human life, including politics.
Revered by Muslims as the prophet of the Islamic faith, Muhammad also laid the foundations for an Islamic empire; he was its political and military leader as much as its spiritual guide. Exiled from Mecca because of his faith, in 622 he travelled to Yathrib (on a journey that became known as the Hijra), where he gained huge numbers of followers, and ultimately organized the city into a unified Islamic city-state. The city was renamed Medina (“city of the Prophet”), and it became the world’s first Islamic state. Muhammad created a constitution for the state – the Constitution of Medina – which formed the basis of an Islamic political tradition.
The constitution addressed the rights and duties of every group within the community, the rule of law, and the issue of war. It recognized the Jewish community of Medina as separate, and agreed reciprocal obligations with them. Among its edicts, it obliged the whole community – members of all the religions in Medina – to fight as one if the community came under threat. The key aims were peace within the Islamic state of Medina and the construction of a political structure that would help Muhammad gather followers and soldiers for his conquest of the Arabian peninsula.
The authority of the constitution was both spiritual and secular, stating, “Whenever you differ about a matter it must be referred to God and Muhammad.” Since God spoke through Muhammad, his word carried unquestionable authority.
Peaceful but not pacifist
The constitution confirms much of the Islamic holy book known as the Quran, which it predates. However, the Quran is more detailed on religious duties than political practicalities. In the Quran, Islam is described as a peace-loving religion, but not a pacifist religion. Muhammad repeatedly stresses that Islam should be defended from unbelievers, and implies that this may in some cases mean taking pre-emptive action. Although violence should be abhorrent to a believer in Islam, it can be a necessary evil to protect and advance the religion, and Muhammad states that it is the moral obligation of all Muslims to defend the faith.
This duty is encapsulated in the Islamic idea of jihad (literally “struggle”, or “striving”), which was originally directed against neighbouring cities that attacked Muhammad’s Islamic state. As these were conquered one by one, fighting became a way of spreading the faith and, in political terms, expanding the Islamic empire.
"Fight in the name of Allah and in the way of Allah. Fight against those who disbelieve in Allah."
Sunni Hadith
While the Quran describes jihad as a religious duty, and fighting as hateful but necessary, it also states that there are strict rules governing the conduct of war. The conditions for a “just war” (just cause, right intention, proper authority, and last resort) are very similar to those that evolved in Christian Europe.
Muslim pilgrims pray near the Prophet Muhammad Mosque in the holy city of Medina, Saudi Arabia, where Muhammad established the first Islamic state.
MUHAMMAD
Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570, shortly after the death of his father. His mother died when he was six, and he was left in the care of his grandparents and an uncle, who employed him managing caravans trading with Syria. In his late 30s, he made regular visits to a cave on Mount Hira to pray, and in 610 he is said to have received his first revelation from the angel Gabriel. He began preaching, and slowly gained a following, but was eventually driven from Mecca with his disciples. Their escape to Medina in 622 is celebrated as the beginning of the Muslim calendar. By the time of his death in 632, nearly all of Arabia was under his rule.
Key works
c.622 Constitution of Medina
c.632 The Quran
8th and 9th centuries The Hadith
See also: Augustine of Hippo • Al-Farabi • Thomas Aquinas • Ibn Khaldun • Abul Ala Maududi • Ali Shariati
IN CONTEXT
IDEOLOGY
Islam
FOCUS
Political virtue
BEFORE
c.380–360 BCE Plato proposes rule by “philosopher kings” in the Republic.
3rd century CE Philosophers such as Plotinus reinterpret Plato’s works, introducing theological and mystical ideas.
9th century The Arab philosopher Al-Kindi brings Classical Greek texts to the House of Wisdom, Baghdad.
AFTER
c.980–1037 The Persian writer Avicenna incorporates rational philosophy into Islamic theology.
13th century Thomas Aquinas defines the cardinal and theological virtues, and differentiates between natural, human, and divine law.
With the spread of the Islamic empire in the 7th and 8th centuries came a flourishing of culture and learning often referred to as the Islamic Golden Age. Libraries were established in many of the major cities of the empire, where texts of the great Greek and Roman thinkers were kept and translated. Baghdad, in particular, became a renowned centre of learning, and it was there that Al-Farabi built his reputation as a philosopher and commentator on the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle.
Like Aristotle, Al-Farabi believed that man by nature needs to live in a social structure such as a city-state in order to lead a good and happy life. He also believed that the city was only the minimum size in which this was possible, and felt the same principles could be applied to nation-states, empires, and even a world-state. However, it was Aristotle’s teacher, Plato, who most influenced Al-Farabi’s political thinking, in particular with his vision of the ideal state and how it would be ruled. Just as Plato advocated the rule of “philosopher kings” who alone understand the true nature of virtues such as justice, Al-Farabi, in The Virtuous City, describes a model city ruled by a virtuous leader who guides and instructs his people to live virtuous lives that will bring them true happiness.
Divine wisdom
Where Al-Farabi differs from Plato is in his conception of the nature and origin of the ideal ruler’s virtue, which for Al-Farabi was divine wisdom. Rather than a philosopher king, Al-Farabi advocated rule by a “philosopher prophet” or, as he describes it, a just Imam.
"The goal of the model state is not only to procure the material prosperity of its citizens, but also their future destiny."
Al-Farabi
However, Al-Farabi makes it clear that his Virtuous City is a political Utopia. He also describes the various forms of government that exist in the real world, pointing out their failings. He identifies three major reasons why they fall short of his ideal: they are ignorant, mistaken, or perverted. In an ignorant state, the people have no knowledge of how true happiness comes from leading a virtuous life; in a mistaken state, the people misunderstand the nature of virtue; in a perverted state, they know what constitutes a virtuous life, but choose not to pursue it. In all three types of imperfect state, the people pursue wealth and pleasure instead of the good life. Al-Farabi believed the souls of the ignorant and mistaken would simply disappear after death, while those of the perverted would suffer eternal sorrow. Only the souls of men from a Virtuous City could enjoy eternal happiness. However, as long as the ignorant, mistaken, and perverted citizens and t
heir leaders pursue their earthly pleasures, they will reject the rule of a virtuous leader, as he will not give them what they believe they want, and so the model Virtuous City has yet to be achieved.
Al-Farabi developed his ideas in Baghdad, Iraq, which was a centre of learning in the Islamic Golden Age, and still boasts some of the oldest universities in the world.
AL-FARABI
Referred to as the “Second Teacher” (after Aristotle) among Islamic philosophers, little is known for certain of the life of Abu Nasr al-Farabi.
He was probably born in Farab (modern-day Otrar, Kazakhstan) in around 870, and went to school there and in Bukhara, now in Uzbekistan, before travelling to Baghdad to continue his studies in 901.
In Baghdad, he studied alchemy and philosophy with both Christian and Islamic scholars. He also became a renowned musician and noted linguist. Although he spent most of his life in Baghdad as a qadi (judge) and teacher, Al-Farabi also travelled widely, visiting Egypt, Damascus, Harran, and Aleppo. It is believed that he wrote most of his works in his time in Aleppo, working for the court of Sayf al-Dawla, ruler of Syria.
Key works
c. 940–950
The Virtuous City
Epistle on the Intellect
The Politics Book Page 6
